In Chapter 2, we outline the theoretical core of our inquiry. To fully understand the experience of political discussion, we must think more broadly about the full set of considerations that structure people’s decisions. We introduce the concept of the 4D Framework to the process of political discussion, articulating what happens at each of four stages preceding, during, and after the opportunity to discuss politics. The stages include Detection, Decision, Discussion, and Determination. Individuals make choices at each stage of the cycle as a result of their unique individual dispositions and the social context, both of which contribute to unique motivations. To rigorously examine the motivations behind political discussion preferences, we develop the AAA Typology, which characterizes motivations as accuracy, affiliation, and affirmation. We argue that in contrast to previous research emphasizing instrumental goals in political discussion (i.e. to learn more information, an accuracy goal), most individuals are driven to preserve their self-esteem (affirmation) and the social ties with their potential discussants (affiliation).

Chapter 6 offers the first look into the Discussion stage (Stage 3) of the 4D Framework. We focus on what people feel during a political discussion, captured using psychophysiological measurement during two different lab experiments. In the Psychophysiological Anticipation Study, we measure changes in participants' heart rates and skin conductance as they anticipate a political discussion. We find that individuals had a larger psychophysiological response to even the thought of engaging in a political discussion, compared to observing contentious discussions on video. In the Psychophysiological Experience Study, we measure variation in heart rate and skin conductance during real conversations. We find that individuals exhibit physiological signs of discomfort while in these conversations, especially when the conversation is disagreeable.

Chapter 7 continues our examination of the Discussion stage (Stage 3) of the 4D Framework, aiming to better understand what people actually verbally express in political conversations. We use a series of vignette experiments and a lab experiment to examine the extent to which people express their true opinions to the group, or engage in other expressive behaviors like self-censorship, silencing, or conformity. We find lab experimental evidence of conformity in real conversations and our vignette experiments revealed that individuals were less likely to reveal their real opinions when they were in the political minority and when they were less knowledgeable. We also find that individuals who were less knowledgeable were more likely to have affiliation concerns that explained their expression behavior. Finally, we analyzed the transcripts from the conversations in the Psychophysiological Experience Study to examine variation in what and how individuals discussed politics. We found that weak partisans were most likely to "hedge" their language when revealing their opinions and political identities.

Most meetings are not run efficiently or effectively, and very few leaders put the time and energy into running a meeting well, not only wasting the time of their audience but their own as well. Without question, some meetings, or at least portions of meetings, are necessarily informative and perfunctory, such as updates on the financial situation of a department or the medical center or school. But not all meetings have to be like that, and nor do all portions of a given meeting. This chapter gives some tips for running an effective meeting, getting the most out of your group in the process, and having the group feel not only updated but engaged, respected, and perhaps even inspired. We talk about how to get people engaged from the get-go and the importance of setting the tone and expectations for meetings at the very start. We discuss the importance of setting the agenda and giving people prework so that they come prepared and ready for discussion. We get into the importance of establishing trust in meetings, so that people can speak freely and without fear of recrimination or attack. We talk about how to foster a constructive dialogue, allowing people to spread their wings and explore their creative sides, but also how to deal with a negative team member who makes others uncomfortable. And we talk about how to wrap up a meeting, discuss next steps, and have the group leave excited for the next meeting. We conclude with how to conduct a retreat for your group.

Key Learning Points

1. 1. Recognise and overcome the barriers to good communication.

2. 2. Treat patients as individuals.

3. 3. Work in partnership with patients.

4. 4. Listen to the patient’s concerns.

5. 5. Be honest and open, and act with integrity.

While Chapter 7 looked at teacher-centred practice (and you can return there to refresh your understanding of pedagogy), we now turn to the vast array of student-centred practices that are available for application in the history classroom. This chapter identifies student-centred practice examples, links to theory that support this type of pedagogy and provides examples of how to incorporate activities in your history teaching planning.

The purpose of the Discussion is to tell the reader whether the data are likely to prove or disprove the hypothesis, presenting relevant arguments, consider in relation to previous publications. Indicating where caution in interpretation is needed, and qualifying conclusions as necessary.

This chapter deals with the synthesis and discussion of findings with a view to answering the research questions. In the previous chapters we focused on designing and conducting the research project, so at this stage, we are assuming you have collected and analysed your data, and are ready to write about them. At the heart of many practitioner research projects is the goal of gathering data to promote or support evidence-based decision-making in classrooms or schools. Whatever your purpose, formulating the different aspects of the discussion is an important step in the research process. It is not a simple task to provide instructions on how to write a discussion – we believe this is best achieved by providing examples to illustrate the ideas and through your own writing practice. As this chapter proceeds, we will focus on the different aspects of the discussion, using case studies to illustrate each of them.

Sometimes employee performance will be below that established or expected by the organisation in the first stages of the performance management process. In this chapter we examine how to diagnose the causes of underperformance. Having identified the primary causes of performance deficits, we then investigate the mechanism through which an employee is given feedback about their performance (the formal performance ‘review’). We focus on the provision of negative performance feedback: why it is problematic for supervisors and employees as well as tactics for the effective delivery of negative feedback. The chapter concludes with a discussion of performance development strategies and practices. We examine mentoring and coaching and their impact on employees and organisations.

Sociocultural and social cognitive theories have begun to make a lasting imprint on English Language Teaching (ELT) and learning as it is undertaken and understood today across a range of contexts (Steffensen and Kramsch ). This chapter reports on a study conducted with English language learners involved in Literature Circles (LCs) over an extended period and centres on an analysis of the discourse generated within these post-reading, group discussions. The chapter begins by contextualising LCs as a vehicle for reader response and collaborative engagement within an ecological perspective to second language (L2) development. Drawing on sociocultural theory (Lantolf, Thorne and Poehner ) and its application to collaborative engagement in a language learning environment, the discourse presented undergoes an ecologically grounded, dialogical analysis. This analysis interprets examples from the group conversations as affordances for language development identified as an emergent phenomenon, co-constructed and mediated by the support of peers, the shared reading experience and relevant scaffolding. The current study suggests that this dynamic combines collaborative interaction and interpersonal communication with ecosocial processes to promote spoken L2 development, where deep processing of shared interpretation, critical evaluation, collective noticing and expression of affect are externalised within the discussions.

A research project is not finished until we have written it up. Scientific reports have a standard format, with some variation. This should be familiar from your reading. This chapter builds on the general advice for writing in Chapter 14 and focusses on how to write a scientific report. I provide general guidance for writing your report, then cover each section of the manuscript in turn. I focus on primary research articles, because these are the main way in which we disseminate new research. Much of the advice applies more generally to theses and dissertations. Most reports have multiple authors and we must negotiate authorship fairly.