We compared the effectiveness of various methods for surveying medium and large wild mammals in southern Oman. Working with volunteers recruited by Biosphere Expeditions, wildlife professionals and local rangers, we used direct observation, camera traps, sign surveys (tracks and/or dung) and molecular scatology to study 66 sampling units of 2 × 2 km (grid cells) in an area of 32 × 36 km during a 4-week period in February–March 2011. Sixteen mammal species were recorded, and the largest numbers of species were recorded by sign surveys and camera traps (both n = 9); sign surveys, direct sightings and DNA scatology recorded species across the largest number of grid cells. For species with a sample size large enough for comparison (i.e. detected in ≥ 8 grid cells), DNA scatology proved most effective for detecting caracal Caracal caracal, signs for hyaena Hyaena hyaena, ibex Capra nubiana, porcupine Hystrix indica and hyrax Procavia capensis, and signs and direct sightings for mountain gazelle Gazella gazella. Clustering, in which records from multiple methods are either adjacent or overlapping, was highest (≥ 76%) for the wolf Canis lupus, porcupine, ibex and gazelle. Our results indicate the best methods to detect and record the distributions of individual species in the study area, and demonstrate the advantage of using multiple methods to reduce the risk of false absences or partial detections. Our findings also highlight the potential of clustering as a means of cross-checking results of observations that are skill-dependent, which is particularly useful when employing a large workforce.

Between 1997 and 2000 a survey of the Arabian subspecies of leopard Panthera pardus nimr was conducted in the little known Jabal Samhan Nature Reserve in southern Oman. Using camera-traps 251 photographic records were obtained of 17 individual leopards; nine females, five males, two adults of unknown sex and one cub. Leopards were usually solitary and trail use and movements suggested large ranges characterized by spatial sharing but little temporal overlap. More active by day than night in undisturbed areas, overall the leopards exhibited two peaks in activity, morning and evening. The survey also provided records of leopard prey species and first records of nine Red List mammal species previously unrecorded in Jabal Samhan. Although people are mostly absent from the Reserve there is some conflict between leopards and shepherds who live outside the Reserve. The numbers and activities of frankincense harvesters in the Reserve need to be managed to safeguard the leopard and its habitat. The main challenge for the future is to find ways whereby local communities can benefit from the presence of the Reserve and from the leopards that the Reserve seeks to safeguard.