Index

Index

abiotic processing, stages of, 467–468

abiotic reactions, 430, 457, 467

abiotic sulfurization, 483–484

abyssal peridotite, 455–456

accretionary cycle, 277

accumulation curve, 631

acetate, in ultramafic systems, 495

acetogenesis, 483

active volcanoes

emissions from, 194–197, 216

temporal variability of, 208–209

adiabatic mantle, 166–167

affinity, 590

aldehyde disproportionation reactions, 433–434

aldol reactions, 434

Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, 1

aliphatic chains, 462

alkalinity, cycle of, biological evolution and, 296

alkanes, 424, 426–427

alkenes, 424

alloy–silicate melt partitioning, 29

coefficients, 16–17

D_c^{alloy/silicate} and, 25

hydrogen and, 25–26

of LEVEs, 20–21

LEVEs and, 25

American–Antarctic Ridge, 255–257

anabolic reactions, 607–608

anaerobic methane-oxidizing archaea (ANME), 530–531, 534

anhydrous MORBs, 135–136

animation, as substitution reaction, 430–433

ANME. See anaerobic methane-oxidizing archaea

Anthropocene, 627

antigorite, 285–286

aqueous electrolytes, 368

in confined liquids, 372

aquifers, 191–192

aragonite, 74, 137

archaea

anaerobic methane-oxidizing, 530–531, 534

in subsurface biome, 533–534

Archean, 283

Ashadze, 494

asthenospheric mantle, 70–72, 78–80

atmosphere loss, MO and, 17–19

atmospheric recycling, of sulfur, 100–102

ATP, 588

Aulbach, S., 68

axial diffuse vents

basalts and, 492

oceanic rocky subsurface and, 492

axial high temperature

basalts, 488–492

oceanic rocky subsurface and, 488–492

Azores, 240–242

Bagana, 217

Baltic Sea, 527–528

basalts. See also mid-ocean ridge-derived basalts

axial diffuse vents and, 492

axial high temperature, 488–492

carbon content of, 4–5

carbon dioxide and, 144

ocean islands and, 144

benzaldehyde, 433–434

benzene, 426

Berner’s model, 336

bicarbonate ions, 19

bioavailability, of OC, 505

biofilm-based metabolisms, 504

biogeochemical cycling, 480

reaction rate controls, 505

biogeochemistry, of deep life, 561–562

biological evolution, 299–300

alkalinity, cycle of and, 296

dioxygen cycle and, 294–296

subduction and, 294

biomass, 587–588

deep biosphere, 588

energy limits and, 588

bioorthogonal non-canonical amino tagging (BONCAT), 563

biotic recycling, of sulfur, 100–102

bipartite networks, 642–643

Birch–Murnaghan equation of state (BMEOS), 171

Birch’s law, 50

BMEOS. See Birch–Murnaghan equation of state

Boltzmann constants, 395

BONCAT. See bioorthogonal non-canonical amino tagging

Brazilian diamonds, 103

bridgmanite, 75–76, 90–91

Brillouin scattering, 77

Brønsted acid catalysis, 422

BSE. See Bulk Silicate Earth

bulk rock investigations, 449–451

bulk silicate, 112

Bulk Silicate Earth (BSE), 322, 325

carbon in, 10–14, 25–26

C/H ratio of, 14, 19

chondrites, 6–7

C/N ratios of, 14, 19

C/S ratio of, 16–18

D/H ratio of, 7–9

equilibrium accretion and budget of, 19–21

hydrogen in, 10–12

LEVE budgets of, 14–19, 25–26

magma ocean differentiation and budget of, 19–21

nitrogen in, 10–12

S/N ratio of, 16–18

sulfur in, 10–12

volatile budget of, 19–21

Bureau, H., on diamond formation, 106–108

CaCO₃, 56. See also carbonates

deep carbon stored as, 74

in dolomite, 73–74

calcite, 74

calcium silicate perovskite, 112

Ti-poor, 112–113

Ti-rich, 112–113

calderas

emissions and, 201–206, 209

temporal variability of, 209

unrest in, 203–204

Calvin–Benson–Bassham cycle, 564–565

CaMg(CO₃), 73–74. See also carbonates

Canary Islands, 143, 149–150, 240–242

Candidate Phyla Radiations, 556–565

Cannizzaro reactions, 433–434

Cape Vede, 149–150

carbide, 29, 461

atomic scale structure of, 47

crystalline, 47

in Fe(Ni) alloys, 72

graphite–Fe, 8

molten iron, 47

carbide inner core model, 41–42

carbon. See also deep carbon; organic carbon

abundance, 11–14

abundance of, in mantle, 67–73

in basalts, 4–5

baseline, 347–348

in BSE, 10–14, 25–26

in chondritic building blocks, 12

across CMB, 55–56

in continental lithosphere, 70–72

of continental subsurface, 500–501

in convecting mantle, 70–72, 254–257

in core formation, 20

in core over time, 55–56

in core–mantle segregation, 24–25

defining, 40

dissolved inorganic, 480–489

distribution of, 80–81, 276

on Earth, 4–5

in E-chondrites, 11–12

estimates of abundance of, 66–67

in exogenic systems, 347–348

extraction of, from mantle, 67–73

feedbacks, 299

in Fe(Ni) alloys, 72

forms of, 11–14, 66

fractionation of, 18–19

inheritance of, in mantle, 68

isotopic composition of, 8–9

as light element in core, 27–28, 40, 55

in mantle, 238

mantle melting and, 257–262

melting points and, 53–54

in meteorites, 11–14

mineral ecology, 630–633

movement of, 1

outgassed from volcanoes, 211–215

oxidation of, 418–419

oxidized form, 70–72

in partial melting, 258

perturbations in flux of, 277–278

polymorphs, 73–74

ratios, 11–14

in redox reactions, 80–81

reduced form, 70–72

residence time of, 277–278

sedimentary, 133

solidus and, 264

solubility, 18, 20–21

sources of, 211–215

speciation of, from mantle, 67–73

stability of, 70–72

in subconduction zones, 133

temporal distribution of, 628–629

in ultramafic systems, 494

in ureilites, 16

volcanic, 215

carbon budgets, 4–5

constraints on, 56–57

of core, 40–41

from core accretion, 66–67

from core–mantle differentiation, 66–67

ingassing, 66

of Moon, 8–11

outgassing, 66

volcanic carbon and, 216–217

carbon cycle, 57

cadence of, 278–279

carbon deposition centers and, 276–278

carbonate melts in, 129

components of, 277

continental, 499

contingency at, 299–300

deep water and, 105–106

diamonds and, 94–95

longevity of, 278–279, 299

long-term, 276–278

mantle transition zone and, 102–103

non-steady-state dynamic of, 299

organic chemistry of, 416–420, 438–439

pace of, 278–279

prediction of, 280–281

pulse of, 278–279, 292, 299

self-stabilizing feedbacks, 299

subduction, 276

subduction zones and, 416–417

supercontinent assembly and, 625–626

surface processes and, 279–283

tectonic, 279, 293–295

carbon deposition centers, carbon cycle and, 276–278

carbon dioxide, 455–456. See also emissions, carbon dioxide

atmospheric plumes of, 188–189

basalts and, 144

bulk, 135–136

decadal averages of, 196–197

degassing, 238–264

diffuse emissions, 191–192, 201–206

direct measurement of, 191

dissolution, 21–22

eclogites and, 146–147

experimental containers and, 457–458

during explosive eruptions, 197–198

flux, 195–196, 242–243, 250

global emission rates of, 193–194

groundwater and, 191–192

incipient melting and, 165–166, 170–171, 177

indirect measurement of, 190–191

in magmas, 238–264

as magmatic volatile, 188

in mantle, 67–68, 177

mantle plumes and, 251–254

melt density and, 170–171

methanation, 367–375

methane and, 95–96

in mid-ocean ridge system, 242–243

in MORBs, 243, 250–251

OIB, 252

partial melting and, 165–166

peridotite and, 146–147

primary magma, 253

saturation, 238–264

solubility of, 238

volcanic, 190

carbon distribution, in core formation, 22–25

carbon dynamics, at subduction/collision transition, 292–293

carbon flux, 150–151, 339–341

carbonate precipitation and, 331–333

carbonate weathering and, 330–331

metamorphic inputs, 329–330

OC weathering and, 330–331

outputs, 331–334

silicate weathering and, 331–333

subduction zones and, 281

volcanic inputs, 328–329

Carbon in Earth, 1

carbon isotopes

composition, 103

of diamonds, 103

in fluid-buffered systems, 97

fractionation, 97

of PDAs, 109

redox-neutral formation and, 96–98

carbon neutrality, of subduction zones, 283–284

carbon phase

diagram, 595

oxygen fugacity of, 76–77

carbon reservoirs, 323–324

deep, 74–75

sizes of, 41

carbon solubility, 18

in magmas, 67–68

subduction zone and, 284–285

carbon speciation

in MO, 22

oxy-thermobarometry and, 76–77

carbon transformation pathways, in subduction zones, 277–278

carbon transport, 133

in cratonic lithospheric mantle, 142

under nanoconfinement, 363–364

in subduction zone, 289

carbonaceous chondrites, LEVEs in, 15–29

carbonaceous matter (CM)

abiotic formation of, 466–468

accumulation of, 466

composition of, 466–467

experimental occurrences of, 461–465

formation of, 464

future research on, 469–470

in hydrothermal experiments, 462–463

in hydrothermally altered mantle-derived rocks, 449

limits to knowledge about, 469–470

oxygen fugacity and, 462–463

carbonate basalt, 113

carbonate ions, 19

carbonate melts

in carbon cycle, 129

compositions, 137–138

in cratonic lithospheric mantle, 138–139, 142–143

from diapirs, 287–288

extraction of, 148

from hot slabs, 287–288

importance of, 150

incipient melting of, 166–168

in intraplate settings, 143

under mid-ocean ridges, 147–148

migration of, 129, 132

at ocean islands, 143

silicate melts and, 168–169

stability fields of, 147

structure of, 168–169

with subconduction zones, 132–134

in upper mantle, 129

in various geodynamic settings, 166–168

carbonate stability

constraints on, 130–131

oxygen fugacity and, 130

carbonate weathering, carbon flux and, 330–331

carbonated basalts

bulk compositions, 137

melt stability of, 179

carbonated MORBs, 135–136

carbonated sediment

melting of, 134–138

potassium in, 137–138

solidus of, 135–136

in transition zone, 134–138

in upper mantle, 134–138

carbonates

assimilation, 70

breakdown of, 80–81

in cratonic lithospheric mantle, 140–142

experimental calibrations, 140–142

Fe-bearing, 75

formation of, 133

in mantle, 72–73, 143–145

mineral dissolution of, 133–134

Na-carbonate, 137

pelagic, 296–299

phase at solidus, 135–136

precipitation, 331–333

pump, 279–280

redox constraints on, 140–142

seismic detectability of, 77

silicate and, 142–143

solubility of, 285

stability fields of, 147

structure of, 282

thermoelastic properties of, 77–78

carbonate–silicate melts, formation of, 69

carbonatite melts, 173

mobility of, 168–178

carbonatites, 133–134

abundance of, 149

classification of, 148

crustally emplaced, 147–150

deep, 144

emplacement of, 149

evolution of, 149

formation of, 144, 149

limits to knowledge and, 150–151

magmas, 130

magmatism of, 149

ocean islands and, 149

in subconduction zones, 134

carbon-bearing fluids

complexity in, 358, 360

fluid–fluid interactions, 366

guest molecules in, 366–372

nanoconfinement and, 363

carbon-bearing phases

limits to knowledge about, 81–82

stable forms of, 66

carbon-bearing reactants, in experiments, 458–461

carbonite peridotite

in mantle, 131–132

melting of, 131–132

CARD. See catalyzed reporter deposition

Carnegie Institute of Science, 388–389

CaSiO₃-perovskite, 112–113

retrogressed, 114–115

CaSiO₃-walstromite, 91–92

catabolic reactions, 599–601

catalyzed reporter deposition (CARD), 562–563

cathodoluminescence, of Marange diamond, 95

CaTiO₃-perovskite, 112–113

C-bearing phases, in E-chondrites, 11–12

cell counts, 586

cellular bioenergetics, 566–567

cementite. See Fe₃C

Cenozoic, 276, 293

Census of Deep Life, 558

C/H ratios

of BSE, 14, 16–19

bulk weight, 13–14

subchondritic, 19

C–H species, stabilization of, 19

Le Chatelier’s Principle, 420

chlorite, 285–286

chondrites

BSE, 6–7

CI, 6–7

E-chondrites, 6–7, 11–12, 15

EH, 15

EL, 15

ordinary, 15–16

chondritic building blocks, carbon in, 12

CI, chondrites, 6–7

Circulation Obviation Retrofit Kit, 528–530

Claisen–Schmidt condensation, 434

climate, 188, 215

stability of Earth, 4

climatic drivers

in elemental cycling, 319–321

negative feedbacks and, 319–321

clinopyroxene, 136–137

CLIPPIR diamonds, 114

inclusions in, 114–115

silicates in, 114–115

closed-system volcanoes, 209

CM. See carbonaceous matter

CMB. See core-mantle boundary

C/N ratios

of BSE, 14, 19

bulk weight, 13–14

superchondritic, 19

Coast Range Ophiolite Microbial Observatory (CROMO), 532

C–O–H fluids, 134

cold oxic basement, subsurface biome of, 530

compositional expansion coefficients, 41–50

compressional-wave velocity, 53

conductive geotherms, 132

confined liquids

aqueous electrolytes in, 372

reactivity and, 374–375

solubility and, 369–370

volatile gas solubility in, 370–372

continent. See supercontinent assembly

continental crust, 326–327

continental lithosphere, carbon in, 70–72

continental lithospheric mantle, 326–327

continental rifts, emissions and, 201–206

continental subsurface, 497–498

biomes, 524–527

carbon content of, 500–501

carbon cycling, 499

deep bedrock in, 503–504

deep coal beds in, 503

environments, 498–501

hydrocarbon reservoirs in, 502–503

continental weathering, 310

convecting mantle, 237

carbon in, 70–72, 254–257

limits of knowledge about, 263–264

melting, 257–262

plumes, 251–254

sampling, 240–242

convective geotherms, 132

core, 4–5

carbon as light element in, 27–28, 40, 55

carbon budgets of, 40–41

carbon in, over time, 55–56

composition, 57

Fe₇C₃ at, 55

limits to knowledge about, 57–58

pressure of, 44

recovery, 237

core accretion

carbon budget from, 66–67

multistage, 25–26

simulation of, 24–25

core formation

carbon distribution in, 22–25

carbon in, 20

D_c^{alloy/silicate} in, 22–25

disequilibrium, 26–27

LEVEs in, 20

multistage, 23–26, 28

proto-Earth, 26–27

single-stage, 28

sulfide segregation and, 16–18

core–mantle boundary (CMB)

carbon across, 55–56

chemical equilibrium at, 55–56

pressure for, 54–55

temperature at, 53

core–mantle differentiation, carbon budget from, 66–67

core–mantle fractionation, 23–24

core–mantle segregation, 5, 22–23

carbon in, 24–25

cracking reactions, 496–497

cratonic lithospheric mantle

carbon transport in, 142

carbonate melts in, 138–139, 142–143

carbonates in, 140–142

deep, 142–143

kimberlite in, 138–139

metasomatism of, 142–143

oxygen fugacity in, 141

reduction of, 141

Cretaceous Peninsular Ranges, 344–345

CROMO. See Coast Range Ophiolite Microbial Observatory

crustally emplaced carbonatites, 147–150

cryptic methane cycle, 405–406

C/S ratios

of BSE, 16–18

bulk weight, 13–14

of fumaroles, 193

temporal variability and, 210–211

C/X ratios, 5

cycloalkanes, 426

cyclohexane, 423–426

cyclohexanol, 426

Darcy’s law, 177

D_c^{alloy/silicate}

alloy–silicate melt partitioning and, 25

in core formation, 22–25

sulfur in, 25

DCO. See Deep Carbon Observatory

deamination

rates, 431–432

as substitution reaction, 430–433

DECADE. See Deep Earth Carbon Degassing

decompression melting, 257

deep bedrock, in continental subsurface, 503–504

deep biosphere

adaptations for survival in, 539, 568–569

biomass, 588

energetics, 585

limits to knowledge about, 505–506

locations, 481

metabolism, 562–565

similarities across, 504–505

deep carbon

as CaCO₃, 74

organic chemistry of, 416–420, 438–439

reservoir, magnesite as, 74–75

science, emergence of, 1

subduction, 288–289

Deep Carbon Observatory (DCO), 1, 90, 388–389

Carbon Mineral Challenge, 632

data and, 620

DMGC and, 115–116

Integrated Field Site Initiatives, 641

on volcanism, 189–190

deep carbonatites, 144

deep coal beds, in continental subsurface, 503

Deep Earth Carbon Degassing (DECADE), 195, 206, 217–218

on volcanism, 189–190

deep life, 539–541

biogeochemistry of, 561–562

deep mantle

oxy-thermobarometry of, 76–77

redox freezing in, 111–114

Deep Sea Drilling Program (DSDP), 250

deep water

carbon cycle and, 105–106

diamonds and, 105

in ringwoodite, 106

degassing

diffuse, 199–201, 204

MO, 5

passive, 197, 206–207

dehydration, 436

aqueous alcohol, 421–422

as elimination reaction, 420–423

dehydrogenation reactions, 423–427

depleted MORB mantle (DMM), 211–215

Desulfovibrio indonesiensis, 570–571

devolatization pattern, 285–286

D/H ratio, of BSE, 7–9

diagenesis, 430

DIAL. See differential absorption LIDAR

diamantiferous peridotite, 70

diamonds

Brazilian, 103

Bureau on, 106–108

carbon cycle and, 94–95

carbon isotope composition of, 103

carbonates in, 135

CLIPPIR, 114–115

crystallization from single carbon fluid species, 97–98

deep water and, 105

defects in, 92

depth of formation, 91–92

diagnostic tools for, 107

experiments for studying, 106–108

Frost on, 106–108

FTIR maps and, 92–94

future research on, 115–116

geobarometry of, 91

HDF migration and, 99–100

history of, 93–94

inclusion entrapment, 106–108

isochemical precipitation, 97

Jagersfontein, 103

Kankan, 103

limits to knowledge about, 115–116

lithospheric, 89–90

mantle metasomatism and formation of, 99–100

from mantle transition zone, 103–104

Marange, 95

metasomatic fluids and formation of, 98–100

Monastery, 103

monocrystalline growth of, 107

natural growth media, 107

Northwest Territories Canadian, 99–100

obtaining, 89–90

platelets in, 93–94

polycrystalline formation of, 108–109

precipitation of, and methane, 95–96

Proterozoic lherzolitic formation, 110–111

redox freezing and, 111–114

redox-neutral formation of, 96–98

scanning electron microscope images of, 107–108

sublithospheric, 89–90

super-deep, 105

synthesizing, 106–107

thermal modelling of, 92–94

trapping of inclusions in, 92

Diamonds and the Mantle Geodynamics of Carbon (DMGC)

DCO and, 115–116

goals of, 115–116

research areas of, 90

on super-deep diamonds, 105

diapirs, carbonate melt from, 287–288

DIC. See dissolved inorganic carbon

dielectric constants, in nanoconfinement, 372–374

differential absorption LIDAR (DIAL), 190–191

differential equations, first order, 317

diffuse degassing, 199–201, 204

emissions from, 207–208

diffuse emissions, 191–192, 201–207

diffusion

pore, 364–366

surface, 364–365

viscosity-diffusion, 171–172

diffusion-sink experiments, 176

dioxygen cycle, biological evolution and, 294–296

disequilibrium core formation, 26–27

disproportionation reactions, 433–434

aldehyde, 433–434

dissolution, of siderites, 462–463

dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), 480–489

dissolved organic carbon (DOC), 480–489

solubilization of, 484

DMGC. See Diamonds and the Mantle Geodynamics of Carbon

DMM. See depleted MORB mantle

DOC. See dissolved organic carbon

dolomite

CaCO₃ in, 73–74

crystal structure of, 73–74

high-pressure polymorphs and, 73–74

iron and, 73–74

MgCO₃ in, 73–74

dolomitic carbonite, 132

Dorado Outcrop, 492–493

dormancy, 588–589

dormant volcanoes, emissions from, 198

down-going slab materials, 133

DSDP. See Deep Sea Drilling Program

E. coli, 570–571

EAR. See East African Rift

Earth. See also Bulk Silicate Earth

carbon on, 4–5

climate stability of, 4, 313

life on, 4

mantle reservoir of, 4–5

organic chemistry and, 415–416

proto-Earth core formation, 26–27

structure of, 4–5

surface temperature of, 313

whole-Earth carbon cycle, 315–316, 338–341

Earth Microbiome Project, 641

EarthChem Library, 240–242, 623

EAS. See electrophilic aromatic substitution

East African Rift (EAR), 149, 205–206, 217, 328–329

East Pacific Rise, 179, 240–241

Ebelman reaction, 292

EC. See Eddy covariance

E-chondrites

carbon in, 11–12

C-bearing phases in, 11–12

LEVEs and, 15

model, 6–7

eclogite, 70

carbon dioxide and, 146–147

in mantle, 144

melting, 215

eclogite-derived melts, 146–147

eclogitic lithospheric diamonds, 90

Eddy covariance (EC), 191

Eger Rift, 206

EH chondrites, 15

elastic geobarometry, 91–92

electrical conductivity

anomalous, 181

enhancement, 176–177

incipient melting and, 173–174, 179

melt mobility and, 179

in olivine matrix, 174

electrophilic aromatic substitution (EAS), 433–434

elemental cycling

basic concepts of, 315

climatic drivers in, 319–321

negative feedback in, 319–321

residence time in, 315–319

steady state in, 315–319

elimination reactions

dehydration as, 420–423

hydration as, 420–423

EM1 OIB, 102

EMFDD reaction, 131

emissions, carbon dioxide

from active volcanoes, 194–197, 216

calderas and, 201–206, 209

constraints, 207

continental rifts and, 201–206

cumulative, 201–202

data distribution, 203

decadal averages of, 196–197

diffuse, 191–192, 201–207, 216

from diffuse degassing, 207–208

from dormant volcanoes, 198

estimation of, 197

during explosive eruptions, 197–198

fumaroles and, 198–201

global of carbon dioxide, 193–194

hydrothermal systems, 201–206

measurement of, 199–201

next iteration of, 206–208

over geologic time, 215

plume gas, 188, 201–203

quantifying, 215–217

synthesis of, 215–217

temporal variability of, 208–209

vent, 216

EMOD buffers, 96–97

endogenic systems, 314–315

energy limits, 585

anabolism and, 607–608

biomass and, 588

density and, 603–605

maintenance in, 586–587

microbial states and, 586–589

time and, 606–607

Enermark field, 526–527

entropy, 590

changes in, 590

defining, 590

enzyme evolution, 635–636

equilibrium accretion, BSE budget and, 19–21

eruption forecasting, temporal variability and, 209–211

eukaryotes, in subsurface biome, 535–536

eutectic composition, 41–42

of Fe–O binary system, 42–43

of Fe–S binary system, 42–43

of Fe–Si binary system, 42–43

exogenic reservoirs, 327–328

exogenic systems, 314–315

carbon flux, 331

carbon in, 347–348

experimental containers, carbon dioxide and, 457–458

extreme cellular biophysics, 570–572

extreme molecular biophysics, in subsurface environment, 567–570

Fe₃C

density of, 47–48

inner core phase and, 50–52

natural form of, 44–48

near iron end member, 48

orthorhombic, 44–48

Fe₇C₃

constraints from, 52

at core, 55

electrical resistivity of, 55

sound velocities of, 52

Fe-bearing carbonates, melting of, 75

Fe–C alloy

constraints from, 52

elasticity parameters for, 45

liquid, 49, 52

melting temperatures of, 53–55

near iron end member, 52

slab-derived, 56

sound velocities of, 50

Fe–C binary system, 41–42

densities of, 44, 48

FeCO₃, 78–79

feedback loops, 317–318

Fe–H, sound velocities of, 53

Fe–light element alloys

melting curve parameters, 52

sound velocities of, 52–53

Fe(Ni) alloys

carbide in, 72

carbon in, 72

precipitation curve, 70–71

Fe–Ni–C alloys, solidus temperature ranges in, 72

Fe–O binary system

characterizing, 44

eutectic composition, 42–43

melting temperatures, 55

sound velocities of, 53

ferropericlase, 76

Fe–S binary system

characterizing, 42

eutectic composition, 42–43

eutectic point of, 55

melting temperatures, 55

sound velocities of, 53

Fe–Si binary system

characterizing, 42–44

eutectic composition, 42–43

melting temperatures, 55

sound velocities of, 53

FISH. See fluorescent in situ hybridization

Fisher–Tropsch process, 460–461

flank gas emission, 188

fluid addition, 215

fluid inclusions, in oceanic lithosphere, 456–464

fluid–fluid interactions, 366

fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH), 562–563

flux melting, 144

formaldehyde, 459

formate, in ultramafic systems, 495

founder effect, 540

Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) maps, 190–191, 238, 451–452

diamonds and, 92–94

Friedel–Crafts reaction, 434

Frost, D. J., 69

on diamond formation, 106–108

FTIR. See Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy maps

FTT reactions, 457–458

magnetite and, 464

fumaroles, 213–214

C/S ratios of, 193

emission rates and, 198–201

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), 568

Gakkel Ridge, 240–241, 250

Galapagos Spreading Center, 248–249

Garrett melt inclusion, 246–247

gas giants, growth of, 10

generalized inverse Gauss–Poisson (GIGP), 631–632

genetic drift, 540

Genomic Standard Consortium, 641

geobarometry

of diamonds, 91

elastic, 91–92

geo–bio interactions, 640–643

geochemical tracers, 68

geologic time

emissions over, 215

volcanic carbon and, 215

geological cycle, 294

GeoMapApp, 241–242

geomimicry, 439

geotherms

conducive, 132

convective, 132

Gibbs energy, 589–599

changes in, 591

composition and, 599–601

densities, 604–605

molal, 604

pressure and, 599–601

standard state, 592–595

surveying, 601–603

temperature and, 599–601

GIGP. See generalized inverse Gauss–Poisson

global emission rates, of carbon dioxide, 193–194

Global Volcanism Program (GVP), 197

Volcanoes of the World, 194

GOSAT. See Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite

GPCRs. See G protein-coupled receptors

grain boundaries, 361–362

Grand Tack scenario, 8–11

graphite, 29

exhausting, 259–260

formation, 465–466

in mantle, 259–260

thermodynamic predictions, 465

graphite–Fe–carbide, 8

graphitization, 282–283

green chemistry, 439

greenhouse conditions, 342

Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite (GOSAT), 192–193

greenhouse intervals, 342–343

groundwater

carbon dioxide and, 191–192

Vesuvio, 191–192

Guaymas Basin, 527–528

guest molecules, in carbon-bearing fluids, 366–372

Gulf of Mexico, 527–528

Gutenberg discontinuity, 164–165

GVP. See Global Volcanism Program

Halicephalobus mephisto, 535

harzburgite, 132

Hashin–Shtrikman upper-bound (HS+) model, 174–176

Hauri, E. H., 189–190, 248–249, 264, 323

Hawaii melt inclusions, 263

Hazen, R. M., 630–632

HDF microinclusions, in lithospheric diamonds, 99

HDF migration, diamonds and, 99–100

heat flux, from hotspots, 252

Helgeson–Kirkham–Flowers (HKF) equations, 596

helium, 213–215, 244–245

hematite-magnetite, 457

hematite–magnetite–pyrite, 457

heteroatoms, 456

HFSE. See high-field-strength element

high-field-strength element (HFSE), 98–99

highly siderophile element (HSE), 15–29

sulfide segregation and, 16–18

HIMU OIB, 102

histone-like nucleoid structuring proteins (HNS), 568

HKF equations. See Helgeson–Kirkham–Flowers equations

Holocene, 194

hot slabs, carbonate melt from, 287–288

hothouses, 345–346

hot spots, 240–242, 257

heat flux from, 252

HS+ model. See Hashin–Shtrikman upper-bound model

HSE. See highly siderophile element

hydration, as elimination reaction, 420–423

hydraulic fracturing, 526–527

hydrocarbon reservoirs, in continental subsurface, 502–503

hydrocarbons, short-chain, 495

hydrogen

alloy–silicate melt partitioning and, 25–26

in BSE, 10–12

fractionation of, 18–19

isotopic composition of, 8–9

methane and, 459–460

hydrogenation reactions, 423–427

Hydrogenophaga, 531–532

hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis, 483

hydrolyzable amino acids, 495

hydrothermal

carbon pump, 279–280, 283

circulation, 495–496

experiments, CM in, 462–463

petroleum, 484–497

reactions, 436–437

hydrothermal systems

abundance of, 204

emissions and, 201–206

sedimented, 496–497

volcanism and, 204

hydrothermally altered mantle-derived rocks, CM in, 449

ICB. See inner core boundary

ICDP. See International Continental Drilling Programs

icehouse conditions, 342

icehouse drivers, 344–345

Iceland, 240–242

igneous aquifers, 499–502

IMLGS. See Index to Marine and Lacustrine Geological Samples

incipient melting

carbon dioxide and, 165–166, 170–171, 177

of carbonate melt, 166–168

composition, 167

defining, 163–165

density, 170–171

electrical conductivity and, 173–174, 179

interconnectivity, 175–176

limits of knowledge about, 182

mantle convection and, 181–182

melt mobility of, 177–179

origins, 164

of peridotite, 179

profiles, 167–168

of silicate melt, 166–168

stability fields in, 165–166

transport properties, 171–172

types of, 177–178

viscosity-diffusion, 171–172

water and, 165–166, 170–171

Index to Marine and Lacustrine Geological Samples (IMLGS), 240–241

inner core

Fe₃C and, 50–52

late veneer, 8–11

phase, 50–52

sound velocities in, 50–51

inner core boundary (ICB), 41–42

insoluble organic molecules (IOMs), 11

Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP), 250, 527

International Continental Drilling Programs (ICDP), 641

International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP), 641

interphase boundaries, 361–362

Interunion Commission on Biothermodynamics, 596–597

intraplate settings, carbonate melts in, 143

inverse Monte Carlo simulations, 26–27

IODP. See Integrated Ocean Drilling Program, International Ocean Discovery Program

IOMs. See insoluble organic molecules

iron

carbon alloys, 40–41

dolomite and, 73–74

melting point, 53–54

redox capacity of, 107–108

spin state, 78–79

iron end member

Fe₃C near, 48

Fe–C alloy near, 52

iron–light element systems

binary phase relations, 41–42

phase relations of, 41–44

isotope clumping, 388

kinetics, 393–399

isotopic reservoirs, 401–405

Jagersfontein diamonds, 103

Jagersfontein kimberlite, 76

Juan de Fuca Ridge, 240–241, 248–249, 493, 528–530

warm anoxic basement of, 528–530

Jupiter, 8–11

Kaapvaal cratons, 69, 101, 103

Kankan diamonds, 103

karpatite, 450–451

Kerguelen Islands, 143

kerogen, 282–283

Kidd Creek, 400–401

Kilauea, 253

kimberlite, 89–90, 106–107, 139–140

in cratonic lithospheric mantle, 138–139

eruption dates, 93, 111

genesis of, 140

group 1, 139

group 2, 139

Jagersfontein, 76

magmatism, 110–111

origins of, 139

oxygen fugacity and, 130–131

parental magma composition, 139–140

kinetic array, 399–401

kinetic inhibition, 419–420

kinetic minimum, 293

kinetic rate constants, 340

kinetics

isotope clumping, 393–399

Michaelis–Menten, 393–399

Kokshetav, 292

LAB. See lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary

labile amino acids, 497

large igneous provinces (LIPs), 254

large ion lithophile element (LILE), 98–99

large number of rare events (LNRE), 630–631

late accretion, 14–16

LEED. See low-energy electron diffraction

LEVEs. See life-essential volatile elements

Lewis acid catalysis, 422

lherzolite, 132

LIDAR. See Light Detection and Ranging

life, records of, 294

life-essential volatile elements (LEVEs), 4, 28–29

alloy–silicate melt partitioning and, 25

alloy–silicate partitioning of, 20–21

budgets of BSE, 14–19, 25–26

in carbonaceous chondrites, 15–29

constraints from isotopes of, 7–8

in core formation, 20

delivery timing of, 17–18

distributions of, 5–6

E-chondrites and, 15

initial distributions of, 20

isotopic compositions of, 5

limits of knowledge, 29

origins of, 11, 19–20

solubility data for, 19

unknowns involving, 29

Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR), 190–191

light elements, 49

carbon as, in core, 27–28, 40

lignin phenols, 481–483

Ligurian Tethyan ophiolites, 453–454

LILE. See large ion lithophile element

LIPs. See large igneous provinces

liquid Fe–C alloy, 49

constraints from, 52

elasticity parameters for, 46

sound velocities of, 52

liquid outer core, oxygen in, 44

lithophile elements, 6–7

lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary (LAB), 164

defining, 181

geophysical discontinuities, 181

thermal, 167–168

lithospheric diamonds, 89–90

classification of, 90

composition of, 90

eclogitic, 90

formation of, 90

HDF microinclusions in, 99

peridotitic, 90

reduced mantle volatiles in, 94–96

refertilization in, 110

lithospheric mantle, continental, 326–327

lithospheric reservoir, 348

LNRE. See large number of rare events

Logatchev hydrothermal fields, 449–450, 494

Loihi, 253

longevity, of carbon cycle, 278–279

Lost City, 404–405

low energy states, 589

low-velocity zone (LVZ), 164–165, 181

limits of knowledge about, 182

low-energy electron diffraction (LEED), 452–453

Lucky Strike segment, 240–241

LVZ. See low-velocity zone

macrofauna, 481

magma ocean (MO)

atmosphere interactions, 17–19

BSE budget and, 19–21

carbon speciation in, 22

degassing, 5

magmas, carbon dioxide in, 238–264

magnesite, as deep carbon reservoir, 74–75

magnesium budgets, 492–493

magnetite, 459

FTT and, 464

MAGs. See metagenome-assembled genomes

Maier–Kelley formulation, 596

Main Ethiopian Rift (MER), 205–206

maintenance

in energy limits, 586–587

measurements of, 587

Manam, 217

abundance of carbon in, 67–73

adiabatic, 166–167

asthenospheric, 70–72, 78–80

carbon dioxide in, 67–68, 177

carbon in, 238

carbonate in, 143–145

carbonate minerals in, 72–73

carbonite peridotite in, 131–132

convection, 181–182

deep, 76–77, 111–114

degassing, 339–342

eclogite in, 144

extraction of carbon from, 67–73

graphite in, 259–260

incipient melting and, 181–182

ingassing, 339–342

inheritance of carbon at, 68

oxidation of, 258

oxidized carbon in, 77–78

peridotite in, 113–114, 144

resistive lids, 164–165

slab-derived fluids in, 134

speciation of carbon from, 67–73

sulfur in, 100–102

mantle geodynamics. See Diamonds and the Mantle Geodynamics of Carbon

mantle melting regime, 164

carbon and, 257–262

mantle metasomatism, 100–101

characterizing, 163

defining, 163–165

diamond formation and, 99–100

mantle plumes

carbon dioxide and, 251–254

convecting, 251–254

mantle reservoirs

of Earth, 4–5

modern, 322–326

primitive, 322–326

mantle transition zone

carbon cycle and, 102–103

diamonds from, 103–104

hydration state of, 105

MAR. See Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Marange diamonds, 95

cathodoluminescence of, 95

methane and, 95–96, 98

RIFMS for, 98

Mars, 26–27, 259–260, 321

Masaya, 209

mass-independent fractionation (MIF), 100–101

MED. See Mineral Evolution Database

melt, incipient. See incipient melting

melt composition, melt mobility and, 177–179

melt density

calculation of, 170–171

carbon dioxide and, 170–171

curve, 170–171

water and, 170–171

melt inclusions

data sets, 240–242

Garrett, 246–247

glassy, 253

Hawaii, 263

isotopic heterogeneity in, 246–248

MORB, 244–248

OIBs and, 252–253

Siqueiros, 246–247

volumes, 242

melt mobility

electrical conductivity and, 179

of incipient melts, 177–179

melt composition and, 177–179

melt stability, of carbonated basalts, 179

melts. See specific types

Menez Gwen, 494

MER. See Main Ethiopian Rift

Mesozoic, 276

metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs), 558–560

metamorphic inputs, carbon flux, 329–330

metamorphism, defining, 188

metasomatic fluids, diamond-forming, 98–100

metasomatism. See also mantle metasomatism

of cratonic lithospheric mantle, 142–143

overprints, 142

metatranscriptomics, 560

meteorites, carbon in, 11–14

methanation, carbon dioxide, 367–375

methane, 388–389, 447–448, 459, 489

biogenic, 503

carbon dioxide and, 95–96

cycling, 504

in diamond precipitation, 95–96

formation, 403, 465–466

hydrogen and, 459–460

limits to knowledge about, 409

in Marange diamonds, 95–96, 98

oxidation, 405–409

production of, 459–460

synthesis of, 95–96

thermodynamic equilibrium and, 388–389

in ultramafic systems, 494–495

methanogenesis

differential reversibility of, 406

reversibility of, 394

methanol, 459

formation of, 459

methylcyclohexanol, 435–436

MgCO₃, 56. See also carbonates

in dolomite, 73–74

Michaelis–Menten kinetics, 393–399

microbial array, 399–401

microbial ecosystems, 640–643

microbial metabolism, in subsurface environment, 562–565

microbial states, energy limits and, 586–589

micro-Raman spectroscopy, 91–92

microscale, in situ investigations at, 451–464

Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR), 240–241, 494

mid-ocean ridge system

carbon dioxide in, 242–243

carbonate melts under, 147–148

mid-ocean ridge-derived basalts (MORBs), 112–113, 213, 237

anhydrous, 135–136

bulk compositions of, 135–136

carbon dioxide in, 243, 250–251

carbonated, 135–136

chemistry of, 135–136

compositions, 137, 248–251

eruption of, 243

melt inclusions, 244–248

oxidation of, 69

oxygen fugacity and, 69

samples, 243–244

solubility in, 243–244

vapor-undersaturated, 246

variations in, 248–251

MIF. See mass-independent fractionation

Mineoka ophiolite complex, 455–456

Mineral Evolution Database (MED), 621

Miyakejima volcano, 195

MO. See magma ocean

modern mantle reservoirs, 322–326

molecular lubrication, pore diffusion and, 365–366

Momotombo, 209

Monastery diamonds, 103

montmorillonites, 464–465

Moon

carbon budgets of, 8–11

formation of, 11, 26–27

MORBs. See mid-ocean ridge-derived basalts

Mount Etna, 208, 328–329

Multi-Gas measurements, 190–191

Murowa, 93

Na-carbonate, at solidus, 137

Nankai Trough, 527–528

nanoconfinement

carbon transport under, 363–364

carbon-bearing fluids and, 363

dielectric constants in, 372–374

nanoporosity, 359–360, 362–363

features of, 360–363

NanoSIMS, 562–563

National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI), 240–241

National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Association, 240–241

NBO/T approach, 21–22

NCEI. See National Centers for Environmental Information

negative feedback, 317–318, 338

climatic drivers and, 319–321

in elemental cycling, 319–321

Neoproterozoic, 346–347

network analysis, 640–643

Newer Volcanics of Victoria, 132

Nibelungen, 494

nitrogen

aggregation, 93

in BSE, 10–12

depletion, 18–19

fractionation of, 18–19

isotopic composition of, 8–9

as siderophile elements, 25

nitrogen cycle, mantle transition zone and, 102–103

nominal oxidation state of carbon (NOSC), 587–588

non-ideal conditions, 598

Northwest Territories Canadian diamonds, 99–100

NOSC. See nominal oxidation state of carbon

novel genes, 564–565

Nuna, 629

Nyiragongo volcano, 195, 201–206

OC. See organic carbon

Ocean Drilling Program (ODP), 492–493

Hole 735B, 455

Leg 201, 527–528

ocean island basalt (OIB), 237

carbon dioxide in, 252

chemistry of, 135–136

melt inclusions and, 252–253

sulfides from, 101–102

ocean islands

basalts and, 144

carbonate melts beneath, 143

carbonatites and, 149

oceanic crust, 487–488

axial diffuse vents and, 492

axial high temperature and, 488–492

characteristics, 491

fluid inclusions in, 456–464

recharge water and, 487–488

ridge flanks and, 492–493

subsurface biome of, 528

ultramafic systems and, 493–495

warm anoxic basement, subsurface biome of, 528–530

OCO-2. See Orbiting Carbon Observatory

ODP. See Ocean Drilling Program

OET. See oxygen exposure time

OIB. See ocean island basalt

Oldoinyo Lengai, 198–199

oligomer dissociation, 569

olivine, 132

carbonation of, 462

olivine matrix, electrical conductivity in, 174

Olmani Cinder cone, 132

OMI. See Ozone Monitoring Instrument

Opalinus Clay, 526–527

orangeites, 139

Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO-2), 192–193

ordinary chondrites, 15–16

organic carbon (OC), 282

anaerobic breakdown of, 483

bioavailability of, 505

burial rate, 333

carbon flux and, 330–331

dissolved, 480–489

oxidation of, 481

particulate, 480–489

weathering, 330–331

organic chemistry

bonds in, 415–416

of carbon cycle, 416–420, 438–439

of deep carbon, 416–420, 438–439

Earth and, 415–416

organic matter preservation, in sedimentary subsurface, 484–485

organic oxidations, 427–429

orthopyroxene, 132

oxidation

aqueous, 428

of carbon, 418–419

methane, 405–409

organic, 427–429

of organic carbon, 481

oxidized carbon, in mantle, 77–78

oxygen, in liquid outer core, 44

oxygen exposure time (OET)

models of, 486–487

sedimentary subsurface and, 486

oxygen fugacity, 17–18, 21–22, 150–151

of carbon phases, 76–77

carbonate stability and, 130

CM and, 462–463

in cratonic lithospheric mantle, 141

kimberlite and, 130–131

magnitude of, 131

MORBs and, 69

oxy-thermobarometry

carbon speciation and, 76–77

of deep mantle, 76–77

Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI), 193, 206–207

data sets, 197

pace, of carbon cycle, 278–279

PAH. See polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

Paleocene–Eocene thermal maximum (PETM), 319

partial melting

carbon dioxide and, 165–166

carbon in, 258

particulate organic carbon (POC), 480–489

microorganisms accessing, 484

PDAs. See polycrystalline aggregates

Pearson correlation coefficients, 246–247

pelagic carbonates, in subduction zone, 296–299

periclase, 113–114

peridotite, 130, 144–145

abyssal, 455–456

carbon dioxide and, 146–147

incipient melting of, 179

in mantle, 113–114, 144

solidus of, 258

peridotitic lithospheric diamonds, 90

permeability, 177, 203–204

perturbations, 277–278

Peru Margin, 527–528

petit spot volcanism, 179, 238

PETM. See Paleocene–Eocene thermal maximum

petrogenic carbon, 481–483

Phanerozoic, 149, 281–282

phase relations, of iron–light element systems, 41–44

Photobacterium profundum, 570–571

piezolyte, 570

Pitcairn, 253

Planck constants, 395

planetary embryos, 28–29

sulfur in, 26

plume gas emissions, 188, 201–203

POC. See particulate organic carbon

Poisson’s ratio, 77–78

polycrystalline aggregates (PDAs), 108–109

absolute ages of, 109

carbon isotope values of, 109

formation of, 109

polycrystalline diamond formation, 108–109

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), 450–451, 497

pore diffusion

molecular lubrication and, 365–366

steric effects and, 364–365

porosity. See nanoporosity

potassium, in carbonated sediment, 137–138

predictive reaction-rate models, 432–433

PREM model, 50

pressure–temperature plot, silicate melts and, 144–145

primary magma carbon dioxide, 253

primitive mantle reservoirs, 322–326

process end members, 401–402

propanoic acid, 428

protein expression, 635–636

protein unfolding, 569

Proterozoic, 283

Proterozoic lherzolitic diamond formation, 110–111

through time, 110–111

protoplanetary bodies, 20

P–T trajectories, 285–287, 289

subduction zone, 289–290

pulse, of carbon cycle, 278–279

pumps

carbonate, 279–280

hydrothermal carbon, 279–280

soft-tissue, 279–280

pyrite–pyrrhotite–magnetite, 457

QFM buffer, 258

quartz–fayalite–magnetite, 457

radiogenic isotopes, 237–238

rare biosphere, 525–526

rare earth elements (REE), 129

Rayleigh isotopic fractionation in multi-component systems (RIFMS), 97, 109

for Marange diamonds, 98

reactivity, confined liquids and, 374–375

recharge water, oceanic rocky subsurface and, 487–488

recycling processes, 164

Redoubt Volcano, 204

redox capacity

of iron, 107–108

of sulfides, 107–108

redox constraints, on carbonates, 140–142

redox freezing

in deep mantle, 111–114

defining, 113–114

diamonds and, 111–114

redox processes, in subduction zone, 290–291

redox reactions, 75, 81

carbon in, 80–81

redox-neutral formation

carbon isotope fractionation and, 96–98

of diamonds, 96–98

reduced mantle volatiles

in lithospheric diamonds, 94–96

in sublithospheric diamonds, 94–96

REE. See rare earth elements

refractory elements, constraints from isotopes of, 6–7

refractory garnet peridotites, 111

remineralization, 481

reservoirs

carbon, 41, 323–324

deep carbon, 74–75

exogenic, 327–328

hydrocarbon, 502–503

isotopic, 401–405

lithospheric, 348

mantle, 4–5, 322–326

Solar, 8–9

residence time

defining, 318–319

in elemental cycling, 315–319

response time, defining, 318–319

Rhine Graben, 206

ribosomal gene sequencing, 558

ridge flanks

advective flow through, 492

oceanic rocky subsurface and, 492–493

RIFMS. See Rayleigh isotopic fractionation in multi-component systems

ringwoodite, deep water in, 106

Rio Grande Rift, 206

rocks. See specific types

Rodinia, 620, 629

supercontinent assembly of, 623–625

Rotorua, 201–204

RRUFF Project, 633

S isotopic systematics, 100–101

in sulfide inclusions, 101

Sabatier reaction, 395–398

Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 570–571

SAGMEG. See South African Gold Mine Miscellaneous Euryarchaeal Group

SAGs. See single-cell amplified genomes

sapropels, 484

scanning electron microscope images, of diamonds, 107–108

scanning transmission X-ray microscope, 485

Schoell plot, 402

seafloor dredging, 237–238

seafloor weathering feedback, 338

secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), 238

sedimentary aquifers, 499–502

sedimentary carbon, 133

subduction, 280–281

sedimentary subsurface, 481

chemical composition of, 481–484

organic matter preservation in, 484–485

oxygen exposure time and, 486

sorption in, 485–486

sedimented hydrothermal systems, 496–497

selective preservation, 483–484

serpentinized oceanic rocks, 451–452

Serpentinomonas, 531–532

shear-wave velocity, 53

Shimokita Peninsula, 527–528

siderites, 461

dissolution of, 462–463

siderophile elements, 6–7

nitrogen as, 25

silicate, 4, 310. See also Bulk Silicate Earth

carbonate and, 142–143

silicate melt, 21–22

carbonate melts and, 168–169

extraction of, 148

formation of, 143–144

incipient melting of, 166–168

pressure–temperature plot and, 144–145

stability fields of, 147

structure of, 168–169

in upper mantle, 143–144

in various geodynamic settings, 166–168

viscosity-diffusion and, 172

silicate weathering

carbon flux and, 331–333

feedback, 334–338

global rates of, 336–337

silicates, in CLIPPIR diamonds, 114–115

SIMS. See secondary ion mass spectrometry

single-carbon species, 459

single-cell amplified genomes (SAGs), 558–560

single-species ecosystems, 525–526

SiO₂

bulk, 135–136

in subduction zone, 291

SIP. See stable isotope probing

Siqueiros Fracture Zone, 245–246

Siqueiros melt inclusion, 246–247

Siqueiros Transform, 240–241

slab-derived fluids, in mantle, 134

slave cratons, 101

SLiMEs. See subsurface lithoautotrophic microbial ecosystems

small polar compounds, 496

small volcanic plumes, 198–201

smectite clays, 464–465

S/N ratio, of BSE, 16–18

snowballs, 346–347

soft-tissue pump, 279–280

Solar reservoir, 8–9

solidus

carbon and, 264

carbonate phase at, 135–136

of carbonated sediment, 135–136

curves, 136

Na-carbonate at, 137

of peridotite, 258

solubility

confined liquids and, 369–370

of DOC, 484

sorption, in sedimentary subsurface, 485–486

sound velocities

of Fe–C alloy, 50

in inner core, 50–51

South African Gold Mine Miscellaneous Euryarchaeal Group (SAGMEG), 534

Southwest Indian Ridge, 255–257

spin transition, 77–78

diagram, 78–79

spot measurements, 195–196

SRB. See sulfate-reducing bacteria

stability fields, in incipient melting, 165–166

stable isotope probing (SIP), 562–563

steady state

in elemental cycling, 315–319

transition to new, 321–322

steric effects

pore diffusion and, 364–365

surface diffusion and, 364–365

Stromboli, 208

S-type asteroids, 7–9

subaerial volcanic budget, 206–207

sub-arc depths, 133–134

subconduction zone

carbon in, 133

carbonate melts with, 132–134

carbonatites in, 134

cross-section of, 134

subduction, 215, 311

biological evolution and, 294

carbon cycling, 276

cycle, 277

deep carbon, 288–289

flux, 334

sedimentary carbon, 280–281

shelf carbon, 276–278

subduction zones, 300

carbon cycle and, 416–417

carbon flux and, 281

carbon neutrality of, 283–284

carbon solubility and, 284–285

carbon transformation pathways in, 277–278

carbon transport in, 289

dissolution in, 285–287

models of, 310–312

pelagic carbonates in, 296–299

P–T trajectories, 289–290

redox processes in, 290–291

SiO₂ in, 291

sources and sinks, 279–280

tectonic building blocks at, 292–293

thermal anomalies in, 289

water in, 291–292

subduction/collision transition, carbon dynamics at, 292–293

sublithospheric diamonds, 89–90

formation of, 90–91

inclusions in, 96

reduced mantle volatiles in, 94–96

study of, 90–91

sub-seafloor sediments, subsurface biomes, 527–528

substitution reaction

animation as, 430–433

deamination as, 430–433

subsurface biome, 524–526, 572–573. See also continental subsurface; deep biosphere

adaptations for survival in, 539, 568–569

archaea in, 533–534

of cold oxic basement, 530

continental, 524–527

deep life in, 539–541

defining, 524–525

diffusivity in, 537

ecology in, 536

eukaryotes in, 535–536

evolution of, 536

extreme cellular biophysics in, 570–572

extreme molecular biophysics in, 567–570

genetic potential of, 558–561

global trends in study of, 533

habitable zones, 525–526

interactions in, 534–535

isolates, 534–535

microbial metabolism in, 562–565

of oceanic crust, 528

of other environments, 532–533

pH of, 537–538

pressure effects in, 567

salinity in, 538

sub-seafloor sediments, 527–528

temperature of, 538–539

of ultra-basic sites, 530–532

viruses in, 536

of warm anoxic basement, 528–530

subsurface lithoautotrophic microbial ecosystems (SLiMEs), 499–502

sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB), 526–527

sulfide segregation

HSEs and, 16–18

post-core formation, 16–18

sulfur

abundance of, 100–101

atmospheric recycling of, 100–102

biotic recycling of, 100–102

in BSE, 10–12

in D_c^{alloy/silicate}, 25

fractionation of, 18–19

isotope composition, 8

isotope measurements, 101

as magmatic volatile, 188

in mantle, 100–102

in planetary embryos, 26

solar nebula condensation temperature, 14

sulfurization, abiotic, 483–484

sulfide inclusions, 100

S isotopic systematics in, 101

sulfides

from OIB, 101–102

redox capacity of, 107–108

supercontinent assembly, 621

carbon cycle and, 625–626

of Rodinia, 623–625

super-deep diamonds

discovery of, 105

DMGC on, 105

surface diffusion, steric effects and, 364–365

surface processes, carbon cycle and, 279–283

Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ), 201–204, 217

Tavurvur, 217

TDLS. See tunable diode laser spectrometers

tectonic building blocks, 292

at subduction zone, 292–293

tectonic carbon cycle, 279, 293–295

temporal variability, 208–209

of active volcanoes, 208–209

of calderas, 209

C/S ratios and, 210–211

of emissions, 208–209

eruption forecasting and, 209–211

terrestrial building blocks, 6–7

tertiary alcohols, 436

tetracarbonates, 80–81

TGA. See thermogravimetric analyses

theoretical modeling, constraints from, 6–7

thermal anomalies, in subduction zone, 289

thermochronometer, 92

thermodynamics

equilibrium, 388–389

graphite, 465

methane and, 388–389

predictions, 457, 465–466

thermogravimetric analyses (TGA), 451–452

time, energy limits and, 606–607

Titan, 632

titanium, 457–458

transition zone, carbonated sediment in, 134–138

Tropospheric Ozone Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI), 193

tunable diode laser spectrometers (TDLS), 192

tunneling, 399–400

Turrialba Volcano, 209

TVZ. See Taupo Volcanic Zone

UAVs. See unmanned aerial vehicles

ultra-basic sites, subsurface biome of, 530–532

ultramafic systems

acetate in, 495

carbon in, 494

formate in, 495

methane in, 494–495

oceanic rocky subsurface and, 493–495

United States Geological Survey (USGS), 623

unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), 192, 198

upper mantle

carbonate melts in, 129

carbonated sediment in, 134–138

schematic representations of, 141

silicate melt in, 143–144

ureilites, carbon in, 16

Urey reaction, 284–285

USGS. See United States Geological Survey

vapor bubble volumes, 242

vent emissions, 216

Venus, 321

Vesuvio groundwater, 191–192

Vinet equation of state, 171

viruses, in subsurface biome, 536

viscosity-diffusion

changes in, 172

incipient melting, 171–172

silicate melt and, 172

volatile elements. See life-essential volatile elements

volatile gas solubility, in confined liquids, 370–372

volcanic arcs, 284

volcanic carbon

carbon budget and, 216–217

flux of, 215

geologic time and, 215

limits to knowledge about, 217–218

volcanic carbon dioxide, 190

advances in, 192–193

volcanic inputs, carbon flux, 328–329

volcanoes and volcanism

active, 194–197, 208–209, 216

carbon outgassed from, 211–215

closed-system, 209

DCO on, 189–190

DECADE on, 189–190

defining, 188

dormant, 198

hydrothermal systems and, 204

petit spot, 179, 238

small volcanic plumes, 198–201

subaerial volcanic budget, 206–207

warm anoxic basement, subsurface biome of, 528–530

water. See also dehydration

deep, 105–106

incipient melting and, 165–166, 170–171

as magmatic volatile, 188

melt density and, 170–171

recharge, 487–488

in subduction zone, 291–292

weathering

carbonate, 330–331

continental, 310

organic carbon, 330–331

seafloor weathering feedback, 338

silicate, 331–338

wehrlite, 132

whole-Earth carbon cycle

box model, 315–316

modeling, 338–341

World Energy Council, 204

xenoliths, 66–67

X-ray diffraction, 91–92

X-ray emission spectroscopy, 77

X-ray microscope, scanning transmission, 485

Yellowstone, 217

Zimbabwe, 95

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