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Religion among the Poor in Thirteenth-Century France: The Testimony of Humbert de Romans
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 29 July 2016
Extract
Some people say the Western world is in a mess, and what it needs is to rediscover its religion. Of the two chief kinds of objection made to this idea, scientific and social, the second is probably nearer the centre of debate now. Its main form, put broadly, is the theory that religion is a device promoted by the rich to stop the poor rebelling. A social theory like this has an historical dimension. To tell if it is true, data are needed about what people have actually done, rich or poor. Since history so far has mostly been about the great, the need for data is all the keener in respect of the poor. The aim of this article is to add, in the context of this general debate, to known data about poor men's religion, from an especially crucial and obscure period: the central Middle Ages.
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References
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43 Geremek, 82–5.Google Scholar
44 II 92 (562G): [of frequenters of weekly markets] interdum etiam et ibi multi in tabernis inebriabantur, et consumunt quidquid habent, propter quod semper remanent pauperes. Eccles. 191.: Operarius ebriosus non locupletabitur; et hoc quia quando vadit ad forum totum consumit in taberna, ita et uxor et pueri sui semper sunt in miseria.Google Scholar
45 I 88 (500D): sunt quidam [operarii mali] qui quicquid lucrantur in diebus ferialibus, totum fere expendunt in tabernis in diebus festivis, et ideo semper remanent pauperes … / (500E) et ideo qui talis est inique agit in domesticos, et pauperes, quia quod deberet expendere in uxorem et filios, et alios domesticos pauperes, vel in alias eleemosynas, totum consumit in tabernis.Google Scholar
46 Geremek, 100 (roof-layers).Google Scholar
47 Geremek, 40: ‘Il est difficile de dire si le salaire du valet lui permetrait d'économiser: nous savons fort peu de choses à ce sujet. Il ne semble pas que les valets aient pu le faire …’ In blaming workers for not saving, Humbert may of course merely have been echoing the comfortable prejudice of a bourgeois. But his charge gains credit from only applying to some workers, while at the same time others besides the poor can be accused of fecklessness (e.g. I 96 [504FG]). On the essential arduousness of a worker's day, Humbert supports the conclusions of Geremek (82), in Fest. 1 (fol. 68ra): [explaining the purpose of feast-days] nisi enim quiescerent homines laboriosi interdum esset eis intolerabile quod, quia habent alternam requiem, durabile est eis. [My commas].Google Scholar
48 E.g. Pauperes and Operarii Conductivi are given separate chapters (I 86 & 88).Google Scholar
49 Worsley, P., The Third World (London 1964) 159, and more generally 130-64. For Paris workers' defence of their jobs against outsiders, Geremek 72, 116; on labour-demand, ibid., 119-42.Google Scholar
50 I 86 (499BC): est quidam status pauperum, qui … modo furantur ut relevant paupertatem … (Compare Jean de Meung, lines 9511-2: Theft as son of Poverty).Google Scholar
51 de Meung, Jean, lines 11435-40.Google Scholar
52 Geremek, 91, 97-8. For prostitution, see below, at n. 172.Google Scholar
53 de Meung, Jean, lines 11407-60: an adaptation from William of St. Amour, Responsiones (whose relevant passage is quoted by F. Lecoy on p. 285 of vol. II of his edition).Google Scholar
54 I 41 (476G): inter multa milia hominum, paucissimi sunt qui possunt induci ad habitandum cum eis, quia natura multorum /(H) omnino haec abhorret. Et ideo nisi essent aliqui, qui propter Deum suam naturam in hoc vincerent, omni essent humano solatio destituti. This was a common impression. Compare The Register of Eudes of Rouen, 17 July 1257, 7 Dec. 1257, and passim (ed. Bonnin, Th. [Rouen 1852] 280, 293; [tr. Brown, S. M. (Columbia 1964) 314, 331; see Index under ‘Hospitals’ 768]).Google Scholar
55 de Navarre, Philippe, Les quatre aages d'ome, ed. de Fréville, M. (Société des anciens textes français, Paris 1888) § 75, 44: viellesce vaut pis que yvers a toute sa froidure: povres viaus est haïz et mal serviz et blasmez et mesprisez de ce qu'il ne se porchaça en jovent & plusor en ont esté mort de mesaise qui vesquissent plus se ce ne fust.Google Scholar
56 II 49 (538F): alii accedentes [ordinibus solemnibus] non habent intentionem ad Deum supra, sed animo assequendi temporalia aliqua magis. … I 30 (470BC): conversi Cisterciensium frequenter veniunt de statu paupertatis ad hunc statum, ut habeant sustentationem vitae. … Sic sine dubio multi in illo ordine quaerunt panem bonum [album], et instruendi sunt ut primo quaerant in illo ordine regnum Dei.Google Scholar
57 Of a number of sermon-collections ad diversos status which illustrate this contention that of Remigio de' Girolami, O.P., gives a particularly clear instance. Of the 161 folios of Remigio's Sermones de diverses materiis (MS Florence, Bibl. naz. G4, 936, fols. 243r-404r) only 3 1/2 are allotted to lay men and women below the highest social ranks (fols. 400vb-404ra). Only one sermon (the last) is for women.Google Scholar
58 II 91 (In nundinis) and II 92 (In mercatis).Google Scholar
59 II 95 (564A); II 93 (563A): interdum emergunt casus, propter quos populus, vel multitude aliqua convocatur ad audiendum aliqua mandata maiorum. … I 88 (500C): aliquando inveniuntur operarii conducti[vi] in plateis in mane, antequam conducantur, vel in sero, cum exposcant solutionem [compare Geremek 126-31], vel in ipso opere interdum otiosi … I 91 (501G): quando in navibus magnis marinis est multitudo transfretantium, occurrit interdum opportunitas eis faciendi aliquam collationem salutarem.Google Scholar
60 I 92 (502B): opus maximum est pietatis verae, vel divisim, vel in communi cum fieri potest, loqui [infirmis in hospitalibus] de Deo; I 93 (502GH): maximum opus pietatis est … loqui [leprosis] de Deo, vel in simul, vel / sequestratim; I 99 (506A): [the account of Jesus' conversation with the Samaritan woman, John 4. 7-30:] ex hoc relinquitur, quod multo magis est praedicandum pluribus mulieribus pauperibus, cum occurrit opportunitas.Google Scholar
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62 I 40 (476A): In serviendo enim pauperibus infirmis meretur tactus dum manibus elevatur, deponitur, et ducitur ad loca necessitatis, et apportantur infirmo necessaria, et discooperitur, et cooperitur, et induitur, et exuitur infirmus, et similia. Similiter et visus dum visis miseris compatitur. Similiter, et auditus dum verba impatientiae eorum et gemitus nocturnos somnum turbantes sufferuntur patienter. Similiter gustus, dum propter eorum servitium intermittitur interdum mensa, et similia. Et sic patet, quod omnes sensus merentur in tali servitio.Google Scholar
63 The prehistory of Petrarch, De remediis I 59 ('rusticus, nisi pessimus, bonus est, etc.) can be traced through the literature given by Le Goff, J., ‘Les paysans et le monde rurale dans la littérature du haut moyen âge,’ Agricoltura e mondo rurale in occidente nell'alto medioevo (Settimana di Studio XIII, Spoleto 1966) 723–41, esp. 733 n. 33 & 740 n. 54.Google Scholar
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65 I 2 (457 [printed as 459]B): praecepta non solum scripturae, sed etiam juris naturalis omnino servare … Google Scholar
66 Compare I 89 (501A) [a depreciatory reference to Moslem pilgrimage], and n. 107 below.Google Scholar
67 I 2 (457B): Christianae etiam fidei sunt quaedam opera propria super alias nationes multas, videlicet, cavere non solum a peccatis operum, sed etiam a peccatis cogitationum. … Google Scholar
68 11 (456GH): Ad omnes homines, passim .Google Scholar
69 I 2 (457B): debet Christianus Christi naturam sapere … Google Scholar
70 I 71 (491C): non debent laici ascendere ad scrutandum secreta fidei, quam tenent cleriici, sed adhaerere implicite … Google Scholar
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72 II 86 (499A): instruendi … circa ea, quae pertinent ad omnes Christianos, ut est confiteri semel in anno, et communicare, et scire Orationem dominicalem, et Ave Maria, et Symbolum, et huiusmodi, et circa ea, quae pertinent ad mores tam in cavendis, quam in sectandis. For the universality of this requirement, see Lecoy de la Marche, A., op. cit. [n. 7 above] 465.Google Scholar
73 II 42 (534C): Alia … [sacramenta] non [salvare possunt] sine isto habito, vel volito. [My italics].Google Scholar
74 Ibid. (543D): sub forma facili verborum, quam omnes possent scire, et quod posset a quolibet conferri tempore necessitatis, ne propter defectum conferentium posset aliquis perire.Google Scholar
75 Ibid.: illa forma utendo possunt baptizare in aqua tempore necessitatis omnes tam masculus, quam foemina, tam bonus quam malus, tam sapiens quam simplex, et similia.Google Scholar
76 II 44 (536A): Licet autem modo non ita frequenter [ut in primitiva ecclesia] communicent fideles propter indignitatem multorum, tamen secundum statutum Ecclesiae ad minus semel in anno … hoc sacramentum, in duobus casibus [= supradicto et in mortis articulo] necessario est recipiendum, quamvis pluries recipi possit ex devotione. I 86 (499A): [the poor are to be instructed in basic duties] ut est confiteri semel in anno, et communicare.Google Scholar
77 I 71 (491E): In consuetis temporibus ad Ecclesiam, ad audiendum instructiones, et mandata Ecclesiae, sine intermissione convenire … [= Ad Omnes Laicos] I 78 (494H-495A): debent [laici in villulis] secundum statum suum dare operam ad bona facienda, veniendo tempore / suo ad Ecclesiam suam, reddendo Ecclesiis et dominis suas debita de substantia sua secundum possibilitatem suam … Google Scholar
78 I 71 (491E) [Ad Omnes Laicos]: Item orationes communes, scilicet Dominicam, Paternoster, et Angelicam, scilicet Ave Maria, et Apostolicam, scilicet Credo in Deum, addiscere, et in certo numero quotidie dicere.Google Scholar
79 I 71 (491 DE): Unusquisque suam uxorem habeat propter fornicationem … evitandam. Item diligenter filios in bono instruere …; ad vicinos officia charitatis servare … Item secundum facultates eleemosynas facere. Si multum tibi fuerit, abundanter tribue: si exiguum libenter impertiri stude.Google Scholar
80 I 1 (456G): cum sit homo animal mansuetum natura, debet esse pronus ad misericordiam. I 40 (475H): Miserationes eius super omnia opera eius [Ps. 145. 9]: quod intelligitur non solum de his operibus quae ipse facit, sed etiam de illis quae fiunt in nomine eius. I 41 (476F): Christiani … debent super omne genus hominum affluere oleo misericordiae, non solum quod faciant apud se singuli secundum suas facultates, sed habeant hospitalia … Google Scholar
81 I 78 (495AB): ego sum agricola, et vivo de labore meo: per gratiam Dei nunquam novi mulierem, nisi uxorem meam. Item servavi me a laesione proximi mei, et nunquam permisi boves meos transire per agrum alienum, quin prius ponerem eis morsellum in ore, ne pascerent segetem alienam. Omni autem mane antequam vadam ad opus, transeo per Ecclesiam orando, et in regressu de opere redeo per eandem regratians Deo de omnibus, quae mihi evenerunt in die. Felices agricolae, qui talem vitam, vel similem agunt.Google Scholar
82 II 42 (534D): sunt instruendi laici ne credant, quod in vino, vel in alio quocumque liquore possit baptizare. … Google Scholar
83 II 44 (535C): Notandum, quod quidam erraverunt circa hoc Sacramentum putantes, quod in eo non esset verum corpus realiter, sed solum significative. Note the use of the perfect tense. But Humbert then recounts a miracle story from the Vitae patrum [Compare PL 73. 979] proving the Real Presence, and adds (535D): Alia multa, et similia circa hoc idem contigisse dicuntur ad instructionem simplicium — as if the simple might still need correction.Google Scholar
84 Ibid., continuing: … simplicium. Quidam autem alii sunt quos non simplicitas, sed superbia intellectus ad hoc inducit, ut Haeretici quidam. … Google Scholar
85 I 92 (502B): huiusmodi infirmi qui raro audiunt loqui de Deo, et multum simplices sunt quamplures eorum, multum indigent verba Dei. … Google Scholar
86 I 88 (500C): multi talium sunt valde ignari eorum, quae pertinent ad salutem … Google Scholar
87 I 86 (499A): Notandum quod pauperes raro veniunt ad Ecclesiam, raro ad sermones, et ideo parum sciunt de pertinentibus ad suam salutem.Google Scholar
88 See n. 76.Google Scholar
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90 I 76 (494B): propter eos [= dominos malos] quae Dei sunt omittendo, ut ad Ecclesiam nunquam veniendo, aut festa Dei frangendo, et similia … Google Scholar
91 I 93 (502G): [leprosi in domibus leprosorum] nunquam veniunt ad sermones cum aliis.Google Scholar
92 Fest. 24 (fol. 82rab): notandum est de abusionibus quas multi committunt circa ecclesias honore maximi [-mo ?] dignas. Sunt enim aliqui qui quamvis teneantur ad ecclesias certis temporibus venire ex mandata ecclesie … tamen rarissime vel tunc vel alias illuc veniunt.Google Scholar
93 57 (484H) [Ad omnem Clericum]: Alii sunt qui rarissime vadunt ad Ecclesias. … Google Scholar
94 I 98 (505C): quia raro possunt ad Ecclesiam ire, et Ecclesiastiçam instructionem audire … Google Scholar
95 I 76 (493G): Porro huiusmodi familia propter occupationes varios raro solet ad Ecclesiam convenire, nisi forte in magnis festis, et tunc in missa matutinali. … Google Scholar
96 See n. 77 (from I 78).Google Scholar
97 II 91 (562C): Fiunt [in nundinis] et alia multa peccata, ut violatio festorum. … I 88 (500E): Alii [operarii conductivi] sunt qui ad Deummale se habent, qui cum per omnes ferias laboraverunt, nihilominus festa in quibus Deo deberent vacare violant in eis operando, vel, quod peius est, peccata et illicita committendo. … Google Scholar
98 II 92 (562E): quandoque … [mercata] fiunt in diebus festivis, et homines miseri relicto divino officio, relicto sermone, interdum neglecto auditu mandatorum Ecclesie, et contra inhibitionem Ecclesie frequenter concurrunt ad huiusmodi mercata.Google Scholar
99 Fest. 24 (fol. 81vb): [the heart should be kept clean, like a church; by six methods]: Primum est ut caveatur ne animalia immunda intrent ut porci canes et huiusmodi et hoc sunt grossa peccata. Secundum est ut cottidie circumiretur et si quid sordidi inventum fuerit eiciatur et hoc sit pro confessione. Tertium ut non solum magne sordes set minime eiciantur ut stercora passerum et huiusmodi. … / (fol. 82rb) Alii sunt ut sacerdotes et clerici qui ita negligentes sunt circa mundiciam et pulchritudinem ecclesie servandam.Google Scholar
100 Ibid. Alii sunt qui quando veniunt ad ecclesiam ita cito recedunt quod vix exspectant finem misse.Google Scholar
101 Fest. 21 (fol. 80rb): nota quod quidam venientes ad festum nichil inde reportant nisi verba dicentes bonum fuit dictum officium vel bonus fuit sermo et similia. Similes illi qui ascendentes arbore plena bonis fructibus nichil inde reportant nisi folia.Google Scholar
102 I 99 (506A): quaedam [mulieres pauperes in villulis] sunt ita indevotae ad verbum Dei, quod quando sunt in Ecclesia, in qua praedicatur, modo loquuntur, modo dicunt orationes suas, modo stant coram imaginibus suis flexis genibus, modo accipiunt aquam benedictam, et vix possunt induci interdum, ut appropinquent ad praedicantem relictis locis consuetis.Google Scholar
103 Fest. 24 (fol. 82rb): Alii sunt qui in ecclesia commorantes vacant fabulis et huiusmodi vanis. …. Alii sunt qui quod peius est faciunt ibi tumultus ex quibus alios impediunt ab auditu officii vel orationibus. … Alii sunt qui ibi negotia vel opera secularia interdum exercent. … / (fol. 82va) Alii sunt qui ecclesias violant violencias et sacrilegia in eis committendo. … Google Scholar
104 II 94 (563G): sed heu mutatae sunt istae sacrae Christianae vigiliae in prof anas vigilias idololatrarum … Google Scholar
105 Ibid.: tota nocte sunt in tumultibus, alios, si qui volunt Deo vacare, omnino impedientes. Et qui deberent Deo loqui in orationibus, tota nocte confabulantur adinvicem, et loquuntur / (563H) non solum inania, sed et mala, et turpia. Et qui deberent divina audire attente, cantant vana, et saecularia in locis sacris.Google Scholar
106 da Rivalto, Giordano O.P., Sermon in Piazza S. Maria Novella, Florence, 8th March 1304 (MS Florence, Bibl. naz. XXXV, 222, fols. 23r-v): tutta la loro [= i filosofi] sapienza e contra la legie di maometti chelglino pongono il fine loro nele creature e credono ke la loro beatitudine / (fol. 23v) sia in mangiare e in bibere e in carnalitade e in queste vitioositadi le quali i filosofi tutti dannaro. (Of Tartars in particular, fol. 24r: Egli vivono come bestie, senonse cheora sono un poco domesticati per li cristiani ke vanno la). Compare Villani, G., Cronica II 8: nel genero la legge del'uno califfo e dell'altro si concordavano insieme nella larghezza de' diletti carnali, e d'altri vizi lascivi.Google Scholar
107 Fest. 2 (fol. 68vb): notandum est quod quidam solent in aliquibus vigiliis quando conveniunt ad aliquam ecclesiam vacare choreis et lasciviis multis et interdum peccatis more sarracenorum qui in jejuniis suis ex quo apparent stelle tota nocte vacant luxuriis et ebrietatibus et huiusmodi nephandis operibus. Compare II 94 (563H): multa turpia, et scelerata committunt in istis vigiliis, quae turpe est etiam dicere ita ut istae vigiliae sint ut vigiliae latronum, et adulterorum, qui in suis vigiliis vacant sceleribus.Google Scholar
108 Fest. 24 (fol. 81vb): sicut deus populos voluit habere aliquos sibi deputatos … ita voluit … de temporibus ut festa et de locis aliqua in usus divinos sequestrata ut olim … tabernaculum.Google Scholar
109 Fest. 1 (fol. 68ra): nota quod festa sunt instituta in relevationem infirmitatis humanae.Google Scholar
110 Fest. 1 (fols. 67vb-68ra): Quidam sunt qui in sanctis festis vacant ludis et solaciis et huiusmodi gaudiis variis. Et isti festum dei vertunt in festum mundi. … Alii sunt qui superfluitatibus ciborum et potuum et huiusmodi pertinentium ad carnalem voluptatem vacant in festis istis. … Alii sunt qui quod peius est vacant peccatis plusquam in alio tempore et isti / (fol. 68ra) vertunt festum dei in festum dyaboli qui summe exaltat de talibus.Google Scholar
111 Heintke, (as in n. 13) 136 (from Humbert's Opus Tripartitum III).Google Scholar
112 Temp. 1 (fol. 84ra): Aliqui qui raro orant in die. … Contemporaries are contrasted with the pious King David, who omni die thought of God, prayed to him, did penance, etc.Google Scholar
113 Temp. 19 (fol. 88rb): multi horrent penitenciam propter penalia gravia quae sunt in ea ut est denudatio corporis sui, restitutio rei aliene, desercio omnis peccati, assumptio pene mansuete et similia et ideo non audent accedere ad penitenciam. … Item multi post inchoationem penitentiae ipsam fastidiunt propter amaritudinem quam inveniunt in ea. … Item multi in penitentia incepta non perseverant.Google Scholar
114 Temp. 10 (fol. 86vb): Quid ergo faciat dominus glutonibus qui toties frangunt jejunia vinis et cibis preciosis se replentes.Google Scholar
115 Ibid. (fol. 86va): notandum quod sunt aliqui qui statuta jejunia servare contemnentes modo comedunt ibi modo ibi modo fructus modo alia.Google Scholar
116 Murray, A., ‘Piety and Impiety in Thirteenth-Century Italy,’ in Cuming, G. J. and Baker, Derek (eds.), Popular Belief and Practice (Studies in Church History VIII Cambridge 1972) 83–106; esp. 89-91, 104-5.Google Scholar
117 de Balzac, H., Eugénie Grandet [1833] (Livre de Poche, Paris 1965 111-2): Les avares ne croient point à une vie à venir, le présent est tout pour eux [etc.] … Quand cette doctrine aura passé de la bourgeoisie au peuple, que deviendra le pays ? Google Scholar
118 Fest. 13 (fol. 75va): Egestas propter Christum et non propter necessitatem … Google Scholar
119 I 78 (494F): haec [= laicorum in villis] est vita ad quam ducendam sumus ab initio in hoc mundo positi. … / (495B) Plures autem de talibus videntur salvari, quamquam [sic] de alio genere laicorum. I 86 (499C): Filius Dei … pro voluntate sua elegit paupertatem in mundo … Compare nn. 123 and 124 below.Google Scholar
120 I 86 (499E): sicut dicit Bernardus [Epist. 100 (PL 182.235D)] paupertas non est virtus, sed amor paupertatis. Item innumerabilia bona, quae dicuntur in scriptura de paupertate non intelliguntur nisi de amatore paupertatis. … Et ideo diligenda est paupertas ab eo, cui data est a Deo, videlicet quod vertatur ei in meritum virtutis. Humbert's special interest in poverty is revealed by his additions to the Augustinian Rule (Heintke 86).Google Scholar
121 I 86 (499A): notandum, quod vulgus solet beatos reputare divites huius mundi. … Google Scholar
122 Bloomfield, M. W., The Seven Deadly Sins (Michigan 1952) 73–5, 82,95.Google Scholar
123 II 60 (544E): aliqui [condemnati ab inquisitione] quando puniuntur pro culpis suis ferunt hoc impatienter, et patiuntur sicut latrones inviti, et impatientes, et culpam suam non cognoscentes.Google Scholar
124 I 86 (499BC): est quidam status pauperum qui … modo blasphemant Deum perversae iurando, eo quod fecit eos pauperes.Google Scholar
125 I 78 (494H): notandum, quod ad hoc quod talis vita [= laicorum in villis] placeat Deo non habent tales murmurare contra Deum ad hoc, quod eos fecit pauperes, et laboratores in hoc mundo.Google Scholar
126 I 29 (469G): Solet interdum contingere, quod quibusdam ad statum conversorum vocatis non placet status suus, et inde evenit, quod non sunt grati Deo, licet magnum ex hoc beneficium fecerit eis. Item sunt quasi quotidie in amantudine, sicut vir qui habet uxorem sibi displicentem. … (It is reasonable to infer that this applies mainly to Benedictines, since conversi to Cistercian, Carthusian, Dominican, and women's religious houses earn separate chapters).Google Scholar
127 I 96 (504E) and I 94 (503GH).Google Scholar
128 I 98 (505DE): non solum non procurant eis eleemosynas, sed interdum / defraudant eos eleemosynis, de pietatis opere aliquid minuendo, vel in alios usus expendendo. … Google Scholar
129 II 40 (476C): sunt quaedam hospitalia quae licet abundent, et de eleemosynis datis propter pauperes sint ditati, tamen cum veniunt egeni non recipiuntur ibidem. … Quandoque etsi recipiantur, tamen … cum fratres et sorores splendide vivant de bonis eorum, ipsos dimittunt languere in magna inopia.Google Scholar
130 I 78 (494E): sunt quidam in hoc mundo, qui vivunt de peccato, utpote de usura, vel furto, vel rapina, vel fraudibus, vel mendaciis vel aliis male acquisitis, vel habitis, et isti pro magna parte sunt divites mundi saeculares. [Ad Laicos in villis]. Compare Temp. 28 (fol. 94va-vb): Sunt etiam multi sicut catus de quo dicitur quod cum quidem simplex homo possuisset eum in archa ut defendet/caseos suos qui erant in eo a muribus qui eos comedere consueverant ipse relictis muribus plus comedit de caseis quam mures consuevissent. Et sic faciunt domini mali gravantes homines suos plusquam hostes.Google Scholar
131 I 77 (494C): [eastelli] sunt modo frequenter refugium latronum, et praedonum … [which categories include minores as well as maiores (494D)]. II 96 (564G): [at the homecoming of pilgrimages:] interdum turpes personae, ut histriones, et malae mulieres… II 95 (564B): [for pilgrims]: periculis latronum … periculis in falsis fratribus [compare 2 Cor. 11.26]. Et nota, quod haec contingunt interdum peregrinis singula. I 99 (505H): quaedam istarum [= mulierum in villulis] sunt ita fatuae simplicitatis, quod Goliardis et Truandis, et falsis quaestoribus dant de facili de sua paupertate / (506A): sic quandoque destruunt domum suam, quod viro et filiis subtrahunt bona, quae eis sunt necessaria. … Google Scholar
132 I 86 (499BC): notandum, quod est quidam status pauperum qui invite sustinent paupertatem, et ideo modo furantur, ut relevent paupertatem, modo blasphemant. … Google Scholar
133 I 99 (505H): contingit interdum quod quaedam istarum [mulierum pauperum in villulis] prae paupertate extendunt se ad accipiendum, vel retinendum aliquid de alieno, vel laedunt proximos, pecora sua inducendo, vel non cohibendo a pratis, vel a segetibus eorum … [Compare n. 81].Google Scholar
134 Esp. II 91 (561H-562A) [In Nundinis] .Google Scholar
135 Ibid. (562A): licet negotia communiter, quae fiunt in nundinis possunt interdum fieri sine peccato, licet vix … Google Scholar
136 Ibid. (562G).Google Scholar
137 Ibid. (562C).Google Scholar
138 Ibid. (562F): aliqui furtive subtrahunt vectigalia, et tributa dominis … Google Scholar
139 I 76 (493GH): Huiusmodi familia solet interdum dominos suos damnificare, eorum bona surripiendo. … Huiusmodi vero laesio, tanto magis est peccatum, quanto laedens magis tenetur domino ad fidelitatem. …. Aliquando vero, etsi non facit hoc in propria persona, tamen sustinet hoc in aliis. … I 98 (505E): interdum [famulae] consumunt cum alia familia, de nocte vel occulte bona dominorum quae sunt eis concessa comedendo, vel bibendo. … Interdum vero furantur, vel furari permittunt dominis suis bona eorum. … Google Scholar
140 I 88 (500E) and I 76 (493H).Google Scholar
141 I 79 (495DE): … verius possent dici hostes, quam hospites.Google Scholar
142 Esp. I 77.Google Scholar
143 I 76 (494A): … et quandoque ad pugnas, ad verbera. [Ad familiam divitum in civitatibus] .Google Scholar
144 193 (502H): … modo inter se rixantur, et interdum seipsos percutiunt vel verberant. … Google Scholar
145 II 91 (562C): … contentiones, et dissensiones … Google Scholar
146 I 76 (493H): prorumpunt [familiales] modo in rixas, modo in oblocutiones mutuas, modo in accusationes / (494A) falsas ad Dominum, et quandoque ad pugnas … I 98 (505F): interdum sunt [famulae] ultra modum iracundae … interdum vero sunt adeo litigiosae, quod turbant totum domum sicut stillicidia quando cadunt tempore pluviae in domo.Google Scholar
147 I 99 (506A): quaedam sunt adeo litigiosae, quod modo turbant virum, modo filios, modo vicinos, modo sacerdotes, modo advenientes … Google Scholar
148 II 51 (539E): Fit interdum discordia inter conjuges. Compare nn. 126 and 147 for two species of marital discordia .Google Scholar
149 II 90 (561FG): multi … fidelitatem amicitiae contractam valde male observant inter confratres suos, eos opportuno tempore non iuvando, vel eis nocendo.Google Scholar
150 Temp. 24 (fol. 91vb): notandum est quod quidem incidentes in tribulatione incidunt insimul in desperationem de nullo remedio cogitante. (Compare n. 198 below.) Google Scholar
151 Bloomfield (as in n. 122) 96; and, with new material and nuances, Wenzel, S., ‘Acedia, 700-1200,’ Traditio 22 (1966) 72–102.Google Scholar
152 I 78 (494H): et multi maledicunt diei nativitatis suae, quando ad huiusmodi laborem nati sunt.Google Scholar
153 II 86 (499C): modo prae amaritudine animi contemnunt semetipsos, et passim exponunt se omni malo, ne curam aliquam apponant circa salutem propriam.Google Scholar
154 I 93 (502A): Alii [leprosi] sunt qui etiamsi huiusmodi mala non committunt, tamen nihil boni faciunt, sed in quadam amaritudine, et taedio ducunt vitam, parum aut nihil cogitantes de sua salute. Compare I 41 (476G): [leprosi frequenter] sunt etiam valde ingrati benefacientibus sibi.Google Scholar
155 Temp. 19 (fol. 88rb): Item multi considerantes multitudinem peccatorum suorum et obligationum et involutionum suarum ex quadam quasi desperacione non accedunt ad penitenciam.Google Scholar
156 Fest. 20 (fol. 78vb): postquam enim peccatum factum est notorium fit facies meretricis in nomine et amissa verecundia induratur magis in peccato.Google Scholar
157 I 91 (502A): quidam ita dati sunt inertiae in mari quod non faciunt, nisi dormitare ibi. … Non sic autem faciendum est, sed devote invocandus est Dominus. … Item consolandi sunt adinvicem ibidem desolati … Google Scholar
158 I 96 (504FG): sunt aliquae [mulieres Burgenses divites] quae non curant quomodo se habeant in domo sua, vel qualiter domus sua se habeat sub eis. I 99 (505H-506A): quaedam istarum [mulierum pauperum in villulis] sunt ita fatuae simplicitatis [etc. as in n. 131] … necessaria, cum e contrario per prudentiam deberent domui suae ita providere, quod haberent competens sustentamentum.Google Scholar
159 I 32 (471A): [conversi O.P.] vel nimis vacant operibus contemplativis, audiendo missas multas, vel prolixum officium, vel nimis stando in oratione relictis officiis suis … Google Scholar
160 Temp. 24 (fol. 92vb): Ideo monendi sunt illi qui petunt per orationes ut et ipsi se iuvent. [‘De rogationibus’]. It will be recalled that in 1277 the Dominican order instituted a ‘feast of three lessons’ for Martha of Bethany, whose spirit was making a number of conspicuous conquests in the Dominican constitution in these years; see Galbraith, G. R., The Constitution of the Dominican Order (Manchester 1925) 7, 106.Google Scholar
161 II 52 (540B): cavendum est a crapula, et ebrietate, quam multi bestiales solent ibi incurrere facile propter delectabilitatem cibi et potus, qui ibi inveniuntur interdum abundanter. Ibid. (539H): huiusmodi consuetudo adeo invaluit apud Christianos, quod non solum magnates, non solum divites, non solum latini, sed etiam minores, et divitiis magnis carentes, immo et graves personae etiam hoc observant.Google Scholar
162 II 100 (567D): et nostri Christiani in istis memoriis faciunt superfluitates in cibis et potibus.Google Scholar
163 II 52 (540B): convivatio enim incitat, et est causa amicitiae, iuxta illud Cant. 5 [1] Comedite amici, et inebriamini charissimi .Google Scholar
164 See n. 45.Google Scholar
165 Ibid. (500E).Google Scholar
166 See n. 44.Google Scholar
167 See p. 299 above.Google Scholar
168 II 91 (562B): Item sunt aliqui mercatores, qui longo tempore absentes a lecto conjugali decipiuntur ibidem meretricibus ornatis, quae solent ibi multipliciter con venire, sicut et decipiuntur ibi aliqui aliis. Humbert cites the colourful portrait of a harlot in Proverbs 7. 10-12, and adds: quod recte impletur in nundinis.Google Scholar
169 II 51 (539E): Interdum autem caro dominatur in coniugibus, et nulla intentione salutari utuntur matrimonio, sed sicut equus et mulus solam voluptatem quaerunt in opere matrimonii. For the equus et mulus compare Ps. 32.9, and — closer to the present application — Andreas Capellanus, De arte honeste amandi, Lib. I. 9.Google Scholar
170 Fest. 17 (fol. 77va): Et infelices multi corrumpunt et corrumpuntur interdum a consanguineis … Google Scholar
171 Ibid: Et infelices homines interdum nesciunt nomen mulierum nec mulieres virorum cum quibus peccaverunt.Google Scholar
172 I 100 (506C): non solum paucos, sed plurimos recipiunt huiusmodi mulieres, modo corruptos, modo virgines, modo solutos, modo uxoratos, modo clericos, modo laicos, modo consanguineos, modo etiam religiosos. For more on this subject, see Baldwin, John W., Masters, Princes and Merchants (supra n. 4) 133-7.Google Scholar
173 I 99 (505H): Istud contingit frequenter in huiusmodi villis, quod tanto frequentius sollicitantur ab aliquibus huiusmodi mulieres ad peccatum carnale, quanto non consueverunt publicae meretrices ibidem inveniri: et ideo vae istis cum consentiunt. Peccant enim mortaliter cum peccant cum quocunque laico: mortalius vero quando cum clerico in sacris ordinibus constituto, magis vero quando cum sacerdote suo parocchiali, maxime vero, quando cum religioso mundo mortuo, magis autem cum omnibus istis, quando sunt maritatae.Google Scholar
174 I 98 (505CD): quaedam talium mulierum quandoque solent se exponere carnalibus peccatis cohabitantium ex frequenti collocutione, et visu, et familiaritate, superante carnis tentatione: et istud fit ex procuratione diabolica, quae facit, quod aliquae, quae nolunt se exponere peccatis istis publice prae verecundia habeant in occulto quibus audacius se exponunt. … O quot filii familias, et iuvenculi, qui verecundabantur ire ad publicas mulieres, cum istis mulieribus amiserunt virginitatem suam. Et ideo vae istis mulieribus, quia sunt culpabiles / (505D) omnium peccatorum, quae postea committuntur per istos. Aliae sunt, quae … procurant peccata huiusmodi … Aliae sunt, quae … scientes hoc fieri non impediunt pro posse, et ideo reputantur favere.Google Scholar
175 Paederasty: Coulton, G. G., From Saint Francis to Dante (London 1907) 416–7. Infanticide: ‘Hostiensis,’ Summa Aurea, lib. V, capp. De his qui filios occiderunt & De infantibus et languidis expositis (edition of Lyons, 1548: fol. 241). For attempts to stop matters earlier, ibid., cap. De frigidis et maleficatis (fol. 214r), before and after the words: similia et turpiora audiuntur: nec sunt talia ab animarum medicis ignoranda. For the special needs of prostitutes (in a world familiar with old wives' remedies and herbal medicine) compare Jean de Meung, lines 4521-2; and of wayward nuns, The Register of Eudes of Rouen, 23 July 1256 [transl. Brown, S. M. (Columbia 1964) 285].Google Scholar
176 de Meung, Jean, lines 6898-6912; 5507.Google Scholar
177 II 94 (563H): multa turpia, et scelerata committunt in istis vigiliis, quae turpe est etiam dicere … Google Scholar
178 I 93 (502H): modo ardori concupiscentiae fraenum laxantes exponunt se luxuriis, et immunditiis indicibilibus.Google Scholar
179 Fest. 17 (fol. 77va): Isaiah 23 [4J: Ad incrementum non perduxit virgines. Quod dicitur quia antequam perveniant ad etatem fere omnes corrumpuntur. Item animalia conveniunt certum tempus ad coitum vel ver vel aliud. Homo vero infelix omni tempore etiam in sacris diebus vacat huiusmodi corruptioni. Solus homo animalium non habet tempus statutum ad coitum. Item cetera animalia non adveniunt varios modos corruptionis set ilium secuntur qui datus est eis a natura; homo vero omnia scelera: in quo nocentiores sumus ceteris animalibus. Item homines non parcunt pregnantibus nec pregnantes refugiunt coitum in quo sunt deteriores omnibus animalibus. … Et infelices homines [in contrast with elephants, as described by Aristotle (see Hist. animalium V 14)] vix expectant quod mulieres surrexerint a partu … Google Scholar
180 See n. 26. Apart from the possible implication of the term ‘oppressio innocentium,’ Peyraut's section on homicide (fols. 173va-174vb) contains no reference to the killing of babies. Nor have I found reference in this treatise to attempted birth control. Peyraut does, it is true, speak at length De peccato contra naturam at the start of his section De luxuria, before passing on to a formidable array of heterosexual offences. Strong though the indictment is, it has an untopical air, starting (for instance): Incredibile enim mihi videtur homines tantum flagitium perpetrasse (fol. 10r). Benvenuto da Imola, it is worth remarking, would feel just the same incredulity on this matter (à propos of Inferno 5, lines 100-24) before a visit to Bologna opened his eyes. Like Benvenuto, Peyraut was born far from a big city (Dondaine, art. cit. [n. 26 above] 169), though he may have studied in Paris, whose poor reputation in the matter of sodomy had been noted (c. 1170) by the St. Blasien chronicler (MGH Scrip tores XX 329, lines 44-5). Coulton (St. Francis to Dante, loc. cit.) followed Dante in linking the vice with clerical and scholarly milieux. While this would have the merit of accounting for its notoriety in Paris and Bologna (and its suggested absence from Lyons), there are reasons for mistrusting the simplicity of the equation. One allegory on the subject, for instance, (apparently from twelfth-century western France) saw the vice as at home simply in the upper classes, as opposed to the peasantry. See Wattenbach, W. (ed.), ‘Ganymed und Helena,’ Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum 18 [= N. F. 6] (Berlin 1875) 124–36; esp. 130, verse 30, lines 3-4: ludus hic … ab obtimatibus est retentus; and 131, verse 34, lines 3-4: rustici, qui pecudes possunt appellari, hii cum mulieribus debent inquinari. See also Dümmler, E., ‘Zur Sittengeschichte des Mittelalters,’ Ibid. 22 [= N. F. 10] (Berlin 1878) 256-8; and Curtius, E. R., op. cit. [n. 28 above] 113-17.Google Scholar
181 Humbert: Heintke 129. de Meung, Jean, lines 19553-98 (in the opposite interest). Bernardino, as in next note. The connection was in fact almost a commonplace.Google Scholar
182 Origo, I., The World of San Bernardino (London 1963) 197–9.Google Scholar
188 Jones, Philip, in The Cambridge Economic History of Europe I 2nd edition (1966) 362–3; and Brucker, G., Renaissance Florence (New York 1969) 55-6, 88; for country and town respectively.Google Scholar
184 Slicher van Bath, B. H., The Agrarian History of Western Europe, a.d. 500-1850 (London 1963) 80.Google Scholar
185 I 75 (493C): devotiores ad verbum Dei, et ideo non perit in eis ita facili semen verbi.Google Scholar
186 Ibid. (493EF): quaedam sunt laudabilia in turba. Unum est devotio ad Christum, et sic fuit olim in diebus Christi. … / … Aliud est facultas fidei, facilius eni mcredebat turba Iesu, quam maiores. … Aliud est zelus pro Christo. Turba enim zelabat pro Christo contra maiores eum persequentes.Google Scholar
187 I 72 (491G): ibi [= in civitatibus] sunt plura peccata … [The whole passage is quoted by Le Goff, J., ‘Ordres mendiants …’ (as in n. 7) 930.]Google Scholar
188 Temp. 26 (fol. 93va): Notandum quod quidam multa inquisierunt et invenerunt pertinentia ad scientiam de spiritu sancto ut scolares theologi. Alii vero multum cantant et legunt ad laudem spiritus sancti ut viri ecclesiastici. Set heu multi talium nichil habent de spiritu sancto. Quid autem prodest scientia de spiritu sancto vel laus eiusdem ipsum non habenti. … Et beati qui circa hoc curam apponunt hiis diebus magis quam qui de eo sollempnizant feriando vel cantando vel confrerias faciendo.Google Scholar
189 II 94 (563EF): Sunt iterum multi, qui in huiusmodi peregrinationibus incidunt in latrones propter plura peccata, videlicet quae in viis, et in hospitiis committunt, interdum plus in una peregrinatione, quam per totum annum committunt in domo.Google Scholar
190 For instance Villani, G., Cronica VII 45.Google Scholar
191 Notably in II 48-62, and 64; compare II 44 (535D). I have found only one direct reference to heresy or heretics in Fest and Temp., namely Fest. 15 (fol. 76vb): alii sunt qui propter indignationem eorum [= episcoporum malorum] contempnunt sacramenta per eos ministrata, ut heretici … The passage quoted from Temp. 23 (fol. 91rb) in n. 218 below may be an oblique reference to heresy: compare Borst, A., Die Katharer (Stuttgart 1953) 162–7, for some Cathars' view of Christ as a phantasm.Google Scholar
192 I 99 (505FG): Notandum quod huiusmodi mulieres solent esse multum pronae ad sortilegias vel pro se, vel pro / aliquibus casibus, vel pro filiis, cum infirmantur, vel pro animalibus suis, ut a lupis custodiantur, et similibus. … Aliae sunt quae huiusmodi divinationibus utuntur ad quaestum. … Aliae sunt tantae obstinationis, et etiam incorrigibilitatis circa haec, quod nec propter excommunicationes, vel minas quascunque retrahi possunt ab huiusmodi divinatione. … I 94 (503F) mentions sortilege, ‘quod est quaedam infidelitas,’ as among corruptions peculiar to women in general.Google Scholar
193 II 58 (543D): Item fuit olim multotiens inter Christianos per ferrum candens facta inquisitio de praedictis. For comments on that ‘olim’ see van Caenegem, R. C., ‘La Preuve dans le Droit du Moyen Âge Occidental; Rapport de Synthèse,’ Recueils de la Societé Jean Bodin, 17 (Brussels 1965) 691–753 (with full bibliography), and, Idem, The Birth of the English Common Law (Cambridge 1973) 62-74.Google Scholar
194 II 58 (543D): Item per divinos, et incantationes diabolicas faciunt hoc idem multi minus fideles.Google Scholar
195 Temp. 23 (fol. 91rb): Aliud [remedium] est ars nigromancia per quam mortui resuscitantur quodammodo, sicut patet de Samuele [1 Sam. 28.11]. Quam artem videtur deus ad hoc approbasse et dedisse effectum ut saltern per hoc apud infideles haberetur notitia de anime humane immortalitate. (Compare n. 218 below.) Google Scholar
196 II 95 (564C): [pilgrimages undertaken] causa videndi non visa, quod est curiositas.Google Scholar
197 See n. 188.Google Scholar
198 Temp. 24 (fol. 91vb): notandum est quod quidem incidentes in tribulatione incidunt insimul in desperationem de nullo remedio cogitante. … Alii recurrunt ad substanciam suam ut in infirmitate ad medicos in causis ad advocatos in bellis ad stipendiarios quos habent omnes pro pecunia … Alii recurrunt ad sortilegos sicut Saul. … Google Scholar
199 II 66 (557C): Multi etiam sunt, qui excommunicationem parum timent. … / (557G) proh dolor, innumerabiles participant assidue cum excommunicatis. … Fest. 24 (fol. 82rb): Alii sunt qui excommunicati etiam [?] interdum intrant ecclesias in periculum animarum suarum quod multum provocat deum. Fest. 15 (fol. 76vb): Alii sunt qui propter eorum [episcoporum malorum] malicias minus obediunt eis in suis sentenciis et mandatis. Compare n. 192.Google Scholar
200 I 78 (495A). Tithes were not of primary concern to Dominicans.Google Scholar
201 Fest. 15 (fol. 76vb): Alii sunt qui pravitatem huiusmodi regiminis semper ascribunt malo rectori vel ipsius electoribus cum pocius suis peccatis hec debent ascribere quia propter peccata populi dominus regnare permittit ypocrita.Google Scholar
202 II 72 (551G): quando huiusmodi Clerici non sic publice puniuntur multi scandalizantur contra Ecclesiam, reputantes quod sit apud earn acceptio personarum, cum laicos facile puniat, et istis sic parcat. Et ideo Ecclesia punit istos palam, ne vituperetur. Google Scholar
203 Joinville, , Vie de Saint Louis c. 138 (ed. de Wailly, N., Paris 1888 290): C'est grans honte au royaume de France. … Stephen of Bourbon (ed. Lecoy de la Marche, A., Anecdotes historiques, Paris 1877, 337): quoniam autem blasphemia negandi Dominum adeo infecit plurimas partes mundi, et maxime terram Burgundiae … [Stephen was an early contemporary of Humbert in the Lyons convent]. Compare Peraldus, fols. 179v-180v. Google Scholar
204 I 86 (499C): [pauperes] modo blasphemant Deum perverse iurando, eo quod fecit eos pauperes. I 93 (502H): [leprosi] modo enim blasphemant Deum, sicut illi qui sunt in inferno propter plagas, modo indignantur hominibus.Google Scholar
205 II 92 (562F): frequenter etiam, et quasi assidue iurant ibidem homines sine causa, dicentes, per Deum non dabo pro hoc tantum, et alius, per Deum non dabo pro precio minori; et alius, per Deum non valet tantum, imo et hoc per Deum bene valet tantum, et similia. … Contra quod dicitur Matth. 5 [34, etc]. II 91 (562C): Negotiator avidus acquirendi pro damno blasphemat.Google Scholar
206 Temp. 1 (fol. 84rb): sunt iterum aliqui qui desideriis terrenis illaqueati vix suspirant in aliqua die ad deum.Google Scholar
207 II 98 (566B): aliqui licet interdum cogitent de morte, tamen earn cogitant a longe. Et ideo stant diu impraeparati. Item non solum stant imparati, non solum non congregant bona, immo quod peius est, exponunt se multis malis propter spem quam habent de poenitendo in furto promittentes sibi longam vitam. Sed heu quot sunt in hoc decepti.Google Scholar
208 II 98 (566C): Ps. 54 [23]: Yiri sanguinum et dolosi non dimidiabunt dies suos, sicut patet in centum viginti annis promissis, qui ablati sunt filiis hominum propter peccata, quibus se exponebant ante diluvium, sicut dicitur in historiis.Google Scholar
209 da Rivalto, Giordano, Prediche inedite, ed. Narducci, E. (Bologna 1867), 211: [on the fleetingness of human life:] Or quanta è la vita nostra ? poca: 60 anni o 80 il più alto, e i più sono di meno dì.Google Scholar
210 Temp. 20 (fol. 89vb): quidam non attendunt quam pauci sunt qui vivendo evadant pericula mundi et ideo non clamant pro salute.Google Scholar
211 I 91 (501H): Porro ista facere solent homines, vel quia non habent bonam fidem de saeculo futuro, vel quia desperant de salute, vel quia pro nihilo habent animas suas, aecipientes eas in vanum.Google Scholar
212 I 93 (503A): tu abstulisti mihi corpus, et ego auferam tibi animam.Google Scholar
213 Temp. 9 (fol. 85va): Infelices qui aures suas avertunt similes Judeis qui de christo nichil audire possunt usque hodie. Non sic devoti fideles debent facere set que sunt de domino illa debent audire diligenter … Google Scholar
214 Fest. 11 (fol. 74ra): Sed heu sunt multi qui parum aut nichil faciunt pro evangelio. Nichil quidem in ecclesia cum legitur assurgant, extrahunt capucium, signant se, osculantur lapides vel ligna vel terram et huiusmodi. Non enim videntur credere evangelio qui nec promissionibus alliciuntur nec minis terrentur … Google Scholar
215 Ibid. Sunt etiam alii qui non solum non obediunt set erubescunt ea quae mandat evangelium.Google Scholar
216 Temp. 31 (fol. 98ra): nota quod status infidelitatis est consilio impiorum [cf. Ps. 1.1] id est demonum et est via peccatorum quia infidelitatis habundat peccatis est kathedra pestilentie propter mala doctrina. Beatus autem qui hiis relictis in lege domini [cf. Ps. 1.2] quam dedit fidelibus que lex vocatur propter causas predictas et habenda est non solum in membranis set in corde ore et opere haberi. Fest. 22 (fol. 80vb): quantus effectus … [corona spinosa Christi] relinquere debet infidelibus ista considerantibus … [Humbert lists the vices — ambition, etc. — which this meditation on the crown of thorns will cure].Google Scholar
217 Borst, (as in n. 191) 150, n. 25; see also Dante, , Inferno X, with commentaries on it.Google Scholar
218 Temp. 23 (fol. 91rb): Verum error iste pessimus est inter omnes errores. Destruit fere omnes articulos fidei et dat occasionem homini exponendi se omni malo et dimittendi omne bonum. Compare Dante, Convivio II 8: intra tutte le bestialitadi quella è stoltissima, etc. A less complete denial of Christ's resurrection, reminiscent of Cathar beliefs, is rebutted in Temp. 23 (fol. 91rb), in a sermon-sketch for Easter: non sic [= as in 1 Sam. 28.11, or Rev. 3.1] resurrexit dominus fantastice set vere. See n. 191.Google Scholar
219 Fest. 3 (fol. 69rb): notandum est quod infideles solent contristari multum de morte carorum suorum et hoc quia non credunt eos vivere post hanc vitam. Set hoc non debent facere fideles juxta illud [1] Thess. 4 [13-18].Google Scholar
220 See nn. 185 and 186. I would like to thank my colleagues Miss C. Lamont, Prof. G. W. S. Barrow, and Mr. C. Jones for criticising a draft of this paper; and Mrs. B. A. Dennis for typing out the result. The paper was read at the historical study-group of the 1973 conference of the British Sociological Association. I thank the organiser, Mr. M. Goodridge, for his invitation.Google Scholar
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