Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t8hqh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-29T11:01:58.312Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Muslim Mandarins in Chinese Courts: Dispute Resolution, Islamic Law, and the Secular State in Northwest China

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 December 2018

Matthew S. Erie
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Many sociolegal studies have investigated the relationship between state law and informal law, examining alternative dispute resolution and popular justice as intersections between such types of law. However, such questions have received little attention in East Asian authoritarian states. I use the case of dispute resolution among Chinese Muslim minorities (the Hui) to reexamine the relationship between state law and Islamic law. Based on nineteen months of fieldwork in Northwest China, I argue that the Hui case shows codependence between the types of law. Law is deeply embedded in social relationships between the Hui and the party‐state. An analysis of personalistic relationships shows the ways in which religious and secular authorities access each other, transforming each other's law to augment their own legitimacy, but not without the potential for violence. The China case illuminates dynamics between Muslim communities and states that are prevalent elsewhere in the post‐9/11 period.

Type
Articles
Information
Law & Social Inquiry , Volume 40 , Issue 4 , Fall 2015 , pp. 1001 - 1030
Copyright
Copyright © American Bar Foundation, 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

Abel, Richard L. 1982. Introduction. In The Politics of Informal Injustice, ed. Abel, Richard L., 1–13. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Abou El Fadl, Khaled. 1994. Islamic Law and Muslim Minorities: The Juristic Discourse on Muslim Minorities from the Second/Eighth to the Eleventh/Seventeenth Centuries. Islamic Law and Society 1 (2): 141–87.Google Scholar
Agnes, Flavia. 2007. The Supreme Court, the Media, and the Uniform Civil Code Debate in India. In The Crisis of Secularism in India, ed. Needham and, A. D. Rajan, R. S., 294–315. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Agrama, Hussein Ali. 2012. Questioning Secularism: Islam, Sovereignty, and the Rule of Law in Modern Egypt. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Ahmed, Sameer. 2008. Pluralism in British Islamic Reasoning: The Problem with Recognizing Islamic Law in the United Kingdom. Yale Journal of International Law 33:491–511.Google Scholar
An‐Na'im, Abdullahi Ahmed. 2008. Islam and the Secular State: Negotiating the Future of Shari'a. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
An‐Na'im, Abdullahi Ahmed. 2014. What Is an American Muslim? Embracing Faith and Citizenship. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Anon, . 2013. Zhongguo 2010nian renkou pucha fen minzu renkou ziliao [Tabulation on Nationalities of 2010 Population Census of China]. Beijing: Guojia tongjiju renkou he jiiuyue tongjisi [National Bureau of Population and Employment Statistics Division].Google Scholar
Anon, . 2014. Baotu nuer maimaiti'abidili miti: sharen shi “gan dashi'er” [Thug Nurmuhemmet Ablimit: Killing People is a “Great Thing to Do”], http://cnews.chinadaily.com.cn/2014‐08/24/content_18476950.htm (accessed September 15, 2014).Google Scholar
Antoun, Richard T. 2000. Civil Society, Tribal Process, and Change in Jordan: An Anthropological View. International Journal of Middle East Studies 32:441–63.Google Scholar
Asad, Talal. 2003. Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, and Modernity. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Atkinson, Rowland, and Flint, John. 2003. Snowball Sampling. In The Sage Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods, ed. Lewis‐Beck, M. S., Bryman, A., and Liao, T. F., 1043–44. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Aziz, Sahar F. 2014. Policing Terrorists in the Community. Harvard National Security Journal 5:147–224.Google Scholar
Bai, Rongjing. 2011. Qingzhensi tiaojie Musilin putong minjian jiufen de zuoyong yanjiu [Research on the Function of Mosque Mediation of Muslim Popular Disputes]. Shijie zongjiao yanjiu [Studies in World Religions] 6:133–46.Google Scholar
Bellér‐Hann, Ildikó, Cesàro, M. Cristina, Harris, Rachel A., and Finley, Joanne Smith, eds. 2007. Situating the Uyghurs Between China and Central Asia. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Bernard, Harvey Russell. 2006. Chain Referral, or Network Sampling: The Snowball and RDS Methods. In Research Methods in Anthropology: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, ed. Bernard, Harvey Russell, 192–94. Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press.Google Scholar
Bernstein, Anya. 2008. The Social Life of Regulation in Taipei City Hall: The Role of Legality in Administrative Bureaucracy. Law & Social Inquiry 33 (4): 925–54.Google Scholar
Bernstein, Lisa. 1992. Opting Out of the Legal System: Extralegal Contractual Relations in the Diamond Industry. Journal of Legal Studies 21 (1): 115–57.Google Scholar
Biddulph, Sarah. 2007. Legal Reform and Administrative Detention Powers in China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bowen, John R. 2011. How Could English Courts Recognize Shariah. St. Thomas Law Review 7 (3): 411–35.Google Scholar
Boyd, Marion. 2013. Ontario's “Shari'a Court”: Law and Politics Intertwined. In Islam and English Law: Rights, Responsibilities and the Place of Shari'a, ed. Griffith‐Jones, R., 176–86. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bulag, Uradyn E. 2010. Collaborative Nationalism: The Politics of Friendship on China's Mongolian Frontier. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
China Islamic Association. 2006. Constitution of the China Islamic Association. Beijing: China Islamic Association.Google Scholar
China Islamic Association. ed. 2008. Yisilanjiao jiaofa jianming jiaocheng [A Concise Course in Islamic Religious Law]. Beijing: Zongjiao wenhua chubanshe [Religious Culture Publishers].Google Scholar
Clarke, Donald C., ed. 2008. China's Legal System: New Developments, New Challenges. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, Amy J. 2006. Debating the Globalization of U.S. Mediation: Politics, Power, and Practice in Nepal. Harvard Negotiation Law Review 11:295–354.Google Scholar
Cohen, Jerome Alan. 1966. Chinese Mediation on the Eve of Modernization. California Law Review 54:1201–26.Google Scholar
Comaroff, John L. 2001. Colonialism, Culture, and the Law: A Foreword. Law & Social Inquiry 26 (2): 305–14.Google Scholar
deLisle, Jacques. 2010. Security First? Patterns and Lessons from China's Use of Law to Address National Security Threats. Journal of National Security Law & Policy 4:397–436.Google Scholar
Diamant, Neil Jeffrey. 2001. Pursuing Rights and Getting Justice on China's Ethnic Frontier, 1949–1966. Law & Society Review 35 (4): 799–840.Google Scholar
Diamant, Neil Jeffrey, Lubman, Stanley B., and O'Brien, Kevin J., eds. 2005. Engaging the Law in China: State, Society, and Possibilties for Justice. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Edge, Ian. 2013. Islamic Finance, Alternative Dispute Resolution and Family Law: Developments Towards Legal Pluralism? In Islam and English Law, ed. Griffith‐Jones, R., 116–43. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ellickson, Robert C. 1991. Order Without Law: How Neighbors Settle Disputes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Emon, Anver M. 2007. Enhancing Democracy, Respecting Religion: A Dialogue on Islamic Values and Freedom of Speech. In Faith and Law: How Religious Traditions from Calvinism to Islam View American Law, ed. Cochran, R. F., 273–90. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Erie, Matthew S. 2014. Defining Shari'a in China: State, Ahong, and the Post‐Secular Turn. Cross‐Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review 12:88–117.Google Scholar
Fadel, Muhammad. 2009. Islamic Politics and Secular Politics: Can They Co‐Exist? Journal of Law and Society 25 (1): 101–18.Google Scholar
Feldman, Eric A. 2006. The Tuna Court: Law and Norms in the World's Premier Fish Market. California Law Review 94 (2): 313–69.Google Scholar
Ferrari, Silvio. 2005. The Secularity of the State and the Shaping of Muslim Representative Organizations in Western Europe. In European Muslims and the Secular State, ed. Cesari and, J. McLoughlin, S., 11–24. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Fiss, Owen M. 1984. Against Settlement. Yale Law Journal 93 (6): 1073–90.Google Scholar
Foucault, Michel. 1980. Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972–1977. New York: Pantheon Books.Google Scholar
Fox, Jonathan, and Akbaba, Yasemin. 2013. Securitization of Islam and Religious Discrimination: Religious Minorities in Western Democracies, 1990–2008. Comparative European Politics May 13. doi:10.1057/cep.2013.8.Google Scholar
Fu, Hualing. Forthcoming. Mediation and the Rule of Law: The Chinese Landscape. In Dispute Resolution: Alternatives to Formalization, ed. Zekoll, Joachim, Bälz, Moritz, and Amelung, Iwo. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill.Google Scholar
Fu, Hualing, and Cullen, Richard. 2011. From Mediatory to Adjudicatory Justice: The Limits of Civil Justice Reform in China. In Chinese Justice: Civil Dispute Resolution in Contemporary China, ed. Woo and, M. Y. K. Gallagher, M. E., 25–57. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Galanter, Marc. 1974. Why the “Haves” Come Out Ahead: Speculations on the Limits of Legal Change. Law & Society Review 9 (2): 95–160.Google Scholar
Galanter, Marc. 1985. “… A Settlement Judge, Not a Trial Judge”: Judicial Mediation in the United States. Journal of Law and Society 12 (1): 1–18.Google Scholar
Galanter, Marc. 1989. Law and Society in Modern India. Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gansu sheng renkou pucha bangongshi [Office for the Population Census of Gansu Province]. 2012. Gedi chufen xingbie, minzu de renkou [Populations of Locations per Sex and Ethnicity]. In Gansu sheng 2010nian renkou pucha ziliao (shangce) [Tabulation on the 2010 Population Census of Gansu Province (Book I)], ed. Gansu sheng tongji ju [Gansu Provincial Bureau of Statistics], 68–107. Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe [China Statistics Press].Google Scholar
Gao, Hongjun. 2004. Yisilanfa: Chuantong yu xiandaihua [Islamic Law: Tradition and Modernization]. Beijing: Qinghua daxue chubanshe [Qinghua University Publishers].Google Scholar
Garces, Chris. 2010. The Cross Politics of Ecuador's Penal State. Cultural Anthropology 25 (3): 459–96.Google Scholar
Gardner, Hannah. 2014. Ramadan Highlights Divisions in China's Muslim Community. http://www.thenational.ae/world/china/ramadan-highlights-divisions-in-chinas-muslim-community (accessed September 12, 2014).Google Scholar
Geertz, Clifford. 1971. Islam Observed: Religious Development in Morocco and Indonesia. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Gladney, Dru C. [1991] 1996. Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People's Republic. Cambridge, MA: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University.Google Scholar
Goffman, Erving. [1959] 1969. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. London: Penguin.Google Scholar
Hakeem, Farrukh B., Haberfeld, M. R., and Verma, Arvind. 2012. Policing Muslim Communities: Comparative International Context. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Halegua, Aaron. 2005. Reforming the People's Mediation System in Urban China. Hong Kong Law Journal 35:715–50.Google Scholar
Halevi, Leor. 2013. A House of Islam or of War: On Republican China's Legal Status in Ma Ruitu's Arabic Correspondence with Rashīd Ridā. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Asian Studies, March 21–24, San Diego, CA.Google Scholar
Hallaq, Wael B. 2009. Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hand, Keith J. 2011. Resolving Constitutional Disputes in Contemporary China. University of Pennsylvania East Asia Law Review 7 (1): 51–159.Google Scholar
Hann, Chris. 2012. Laiklik and Legitimation in Rural Eastern Xinjiang. In Varieties of Secularism in Asia: Anthropological Explorations of Religion, Politics and the Spiritual, ed. Bubandt and, Nils van Beek, Martijn, 121–42. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Harrington, Christine B. 1985. Shadow Justice: The Ideology and Institutionalization of Alternatives to Court. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
Harrington, Christine B. 1992. Popular Justice, Populist Politics: Law in Community Organizing. Social & Legal Studies 1:177–98.Google Scholar
Henry, Stuart. 1985. Community Justice, Capitalist Society, and Human Agency: The Dialectics of Collective Law in the Cooperative. Law & Society Review 19:303–27.Google Scholar
Hillman, Ben. 2014. Patronage and Power: Local State Networks and Party‐State Resilience in Rural China. Redwood City, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Hofrichter, Richard. 1987. Neighborhood Justice in Capitalist Society. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.Google Scholar
Huang, Philip C. C. 2006. Court Mediation in China, Past and Present. Modern China 32 (3): 275–314.Google Scholar
Katz, Paul R. 2009. Divine Justice: Religion and the Development of Chinese Legal Culture. New York: Taylor and Francis.Google Scholar
Kaup, Katherine. 2003. Regionalism Versus Ethnicnationalism in the People's Republic of China. China Quarterly 172:863–84.Google Scholar
Keshavjee, Mohamed M. 2013. Islam, Sharia and Alternative Dispute Resolution. London: I. B. Tauris & Co.Google Scholar
Kuru, Ahmet T. 2009. Secularism and State Policies Toward Religion: The United States, France, and Turkey. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lee, Ching Kwan. 2007. Against the Law: Labor Protests in China's Rustbelt and Sunbelt. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Li, Ling. 2011. Performing Bribery in China—Guanxi‐Practice, Corruption with a Human Face. Journal of Contemporary China 20 (68): 1–20.Google Scholar
Li, Ling. 2012. The “Production” of Corruption in China's Courts: Judicial Politics and Decision Making in a One‐Party State. Law & Social Inquiry 37 (4): 848–78.Google Scholar
Liebman, Benjamin L. 2011. A Return to Populist Legality? Historical Legacies and Legal Reform. In Mao's Invisible Hand, ed. Heilman and, S. Perry, E. J., 165–200. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Lin, Chris X. 2003. A Quiet Revolution: An Overview of China's Judicial Reform. Asian‐Pacific Law & Policy Journal 4 (2): 255–319.Google Scholar
Liu, Sida, and Halliday, Terence C. 2011. Political Liberalism and Political Embeddedness: Understanding Politics in the Work of Chinese Criminal Defense Lawyers. Law & Society Review 45 (4): 831–65.Google Scholar
Lo, Ming‐Cheng M., and Otis, Eileen M. 2003. Guanxi Civility: Processes, Potentials, and Contingencies. Politics & Society. 31 (1): 131–62.Google Scholar
Luban, David. 1988. The Quality of Justice. Denver University Law Review 66:381–417.Google Scholar
Lubman, Stanley. 1967. Mao and Mediation: Politics and Dispute Resolution in Communist China. California Law Review 55 (5): 1284–1360.Google Scholar
Lubman, Stanley. 1999. Bird in a Cage: Legal Reform in China After Mao. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Ma, Kelin. 2006. Huizu chuantongfa wenhua yanjiu [Research on Hui Traditional Legal Culture]. Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe [China Social Science Publisher].Google Scholar
Ma, Mingxian. 2011. Yisilanfa: Chuantong yu yanxin [Islamic Laws: Tradition and Renovation]. Beijing: Shangwu yin shuguan chubanshe [Commercial Press].Google Scholar
Mahmood, Saba. 2005. Politics of Piety: The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
March, Andrew F. 2009. Islam and Liberal Citizenship: The Search for an Overlapping Consensus. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Martin, Jeffrey T. 2013. Legitimate Force in a Particularistic Democracy: Street Police and Outlaw Legislators in the Republic of China on Taiwan. Law & Social Inquiry 38 (3): 615–42.Google Scholar
Merry, Sally Engle, and Milner, Neal. 1993. Introduction. In The Possibility of Popular Justice: A Case Study of Community Mediation in the United States, ed. Merry and, Sally Engle Milner, Neal, 3–30. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Merry, Sally Engle, and Silbey, Susan S. 1984. What Do Plaintiffs Want? Reexamining the Concept of Dispute. Justice System Journal 9 (2): 151–283.Google Scholar
Michelson, Ethan. 2007. Lawyers, Political Embeddedness, and Institutional Continuity in China's Transition from Socialism. American Journal of Sociology 113 (2): 352–414.Google Scholar
Minzner, Carl F. 2011. China's Turn Against Law. American Journal of Comparative Law 59:935–84.Google Scholar
Moore, Sally Falk. 1978. Law as Process: An Anthropological Approach. Oxford: James Currey.Google Scholar
Moustafa, Tamir. 2013. Liberal Rights vs. Islamic Law in Malaysian Political Discourse. Law & Society Review 47 (4): 771–802.Google Scholar
Nader, Laura. 1991. Harmony Ideology: Justice and Control in a Zapotec Mountain Village. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Nader, Laura, and Grande, Elisabetta. 2002. Current Illusions and Delusions About Conflict Management in Africa and Elsewhere. Law and Social Inquiry 27 (3): 573–91.Google Scholar
Norrie, Alan. 1999. From Law to Popular Justice: Beyond Antinomialism. In Laws of the Postcolonial, ed. Darian‐Smith and, E. Fitzpatrick, P., 249–76. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
O'Brien, Kevin J., and Li, Lianjiang. 2005. Suing the Local State: Administrative Litigation in Rural China. In Engaging the Law in China: State, Society, and Possibilities for Justice, ed. Diamant, Neal Jeffrey, Lubman, Stanley B., and O'Brien, Kevin J., 31–53. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Peerenboom, Randall, ed. 2009. Judicial Independence in China: Lessons for Global Rule of Law Promotion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Pirie, Fernanda. 2013. The Limits of the State: Coercion and Consent in Chinese Tibet. Journal of Asian Studies 72 (1): 69–89.Google Scholar
Pissler, Knut B. 2012. Mediation in China: Threat to the Rule of Law? In Mediation: Principles and Regulation in Comparative Perspective, ed. Hopt and, Klaus J. Steffek, Felix, 959–1010. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Potter, Pittman B. 2002. Guanxi and the PRC Legal System: From Contradiction to Complementarity. In Social Connections in China: Institutions, Culture, and the Changing Nature of Guanxi, ed. Gold, T., Guthrie, D., and Wank, D., 179–96. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Quraishi‐Landes, Asifa. 2011. What if Sharia Weren't the Enemy? Rethinking Women's Rights Advocacy on Islamic Law. Columbia Journal of Gender and Law 21 (1): 173–249.Google Scholar
Ramadan, Tariq. 2008. Radical Reform: Islamic Ethics and Liberation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Rascoff, Paul. 2012. Establishing Official Islam? The Law and Strategy of Counter‐Radicalization. Stanford Law Review 64 (1): 125–90.Google Scholar
Read, Benjamin L., and Michelson, Ethan. 2008. Mediating the Mediation Debate: Conflict Resolution and the Local State in China. Journal of Conflict Resolution 52 (5): 737–64.Google Scholar
Richman, Barak D. 2006. How Community Institutions Create Economic Advantage: Jewish Diamond Merchants in New York. Law & Social Inquiry 31 (2): 383–420.Google Scholar
Riles, Annelise. 2002. User Friendly: Informality and Expertise. Law & Social Inquiry 27 (3): 613–19.Google Scholar
Roberts, Simon. 1993. Alternative Dispute Resolution and Civil Justice: An Unresolved Relationship. Modern Law Review 56: 452–70.Google Scholar
Roberts, Simon, and Palmer, Michael, eds. 2005. Dispute Processes: ADR and the Primary Forms of Decision‐Making. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rohe, Mathias. 2007. Muslim Minorities and the Law in Europe: Chances and Challenges. New Delhi: Global Media Publications.Google Scholar
Rosen, Lawrence. 1984. Bargaining for Reality: The Construction of Social Relations in a Muslim Community. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Rosen, Lawrence. 1989. The Anthropology of Justice: Law as Culture in Islamic Society. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sander, Frank E. A. 1979. Varieties of Dispute Processes. In The Pound Conference: Perspectives on Justice in the Future, ed. Levin and, A. L. Wheeler, R. R., 65–87. St. Paul, MN: West.Google Scholar
de Sousa, Santos Boaventura. 1980. Law and Community: The Changing Nature of State Power in Late Capitalism. International Journal of the Sociology of Law 8:379–97.Google Scholar
Sapio, Flora. 2010. Sovereign Power and the Law in China. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill.Google Scholar
Senft, Louise Phipps, and Savage, Cynthia A. 2003. ADR in the Courts: Progress, Problems, and Possibilities. Penn State Law Review 108 (1): 327–48.Google Scholar
Sezgin, Yüksel. 2013. Human Rights Under State‐Enforced Religious Family Laws in Israel, Egypt and India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Shah, Prakash. 2010. Between God and the Sultana? Legal Pluralism in the British Muslim Diaspora. In Shari'a as Discourse: Legal Traditions and the Encounter with Europe, ed. Nielsen and, J. S. Christoffersen, L., 117–40. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Shapiro, Martin. 1981. Courts: A Comparative and Political Analysis. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Shen, Yuanyuan. 2000. Conceptions and Receptions of Legality: Understanding the Complexity of Law Reform in Modern China. In The Limits of the Rule of Law in China, ed. Turner, K. G., Feinerman, J. V., and Guy, R. K., 20–44. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Smart, Alan, and Hsu, Carolyn L. 2013. Corruption or Social Capital? Tact and the Performance of Guanxi in Market Socialist China. In Corruption and the Secret of Law: A Legal Anthropological Perspective, ed. Nuijten and, M. Anders, G., 167–90. Burlington, VT: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Stepan, Alfred. 2011. The Multiple Secularisms of Modern Democratic and Non‐Democratic Regimes. In Rethinking Secularism, ed. Calhoun, C., Juergensmeyer, M., and Van Antwerpen, J., 114–44. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Tamanaha, Brian. 2000. A Non‐Essentialist Concept of Legal Pluralism. Journal of Law and Society 27 (2): 296–321.Google Scholar
Trevaskas, Susan. 2004. Propaganda Work in Chinese Courts: Public Trials and Sentencing Rallies as Sites of Expressive Punishment and Public Education in the People's Republic of China. Punishment and Society 6 (1): 5–21.Google Scholar
Tsai, Lily L. 2007. Accountability Without Democracy: Solidary Groups and Public Goods Provision in Rural China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Tyler, Tom R., Schulhofer, Stephen, and Huq, Aziz. 2010. Legitimacy and Deterrence Effects in Counter‐Terrorism Policing: A Study of Muslim Americans. Law & Society Review 44 (2): 365–401.Google Scholar
Wang, Yingmei. 2012. Kaoyushi fazhan beijing xia minzu diqu shehui maodun jiufen de huajie zhidao—Yi Ningxia de zuofa wei pingxi duixiang [The Path of Mediating Social Disputes in Ethnic Areas Against the Backdrop of Breakthrough Development—Assessing the Objective Through Ningxia's Approach]. Xinan minzu daxue xuebao: Renwen shehui kexueban [Journal of Southwest Nationalities University: Humanities and Social Sciences] 1:50–54.Google Scholar
Wang, Yuting. 2013. The “Good” and the “Bad” Muslims of China, http://blogs.ssrc.org/tif/2013/10/08/the-good-and-the-bad-muslims-of-china/ (accessed September 3, 2014).Google Scholar
Yan, Wenqiang. 2012. “Zhenshi” yu “jiangou” de eryuanduili: Lun guojiafa yu Yizu xiguanfa de duanlie [Binary Opposition of “True” and “Construction”: On the Breaking and Cooperation of State Law and Yi's Customary Law]. Minzu Xuekan [Journal of Ethnology] 4 (12): 45–49.Google Scholar
Yang, Jingde. 2006. Huizu Yisilan xiguanfa yanjiu [Research on Hui Islamic Customary Law]. Yinchuan: Ningxia renmin chubanshe [Ningxia People's Publisher].Google Scholar
Yeh, Emily T. 2003. Tibetan Range Wars: Spatial Politics and Authority on the Grasslands of Amdo. Development and Change 34 (3): 499–523.Google Scholar
Zhao, Xudong. 2003. Quanli yu gongzheng [Rights and Justice]. Tianjin: Ancient Books.Google Scholar
Zhu, Jingwen, ed. 2011. Zhongguo renmin daxue Zhongguo falü fazhan baogao 2011 zouxiang duoyuanhua de falü shishe [China People's University's China Law Development Report 2011: Toward a Diversified Law Enforcement]. Beijing: Zhongguo renmin daxue chubanshe [China People's University Publishers].Google Scholar
Zhu, Suli. 1993. Falü guibe he falü duoyuan [Legal Avoidance and Plural Law]. Zhongwai faxue [Sino‐Foreign Legal Studies] 30 (6): 14–20.Google Scholar

Cases Cited

Raza v. New York, US District Court Eastern District of New York, filed June 18, 2013Google Scholar
Several Provisions of the Supreme People's Court on Hearing Civil Cases Involving Mediation Agreements, promulgated by the Supreme People's Court on September 5, 2002Google Scholar

Statutes and Regulations Cited

Constitution of the PRC, adopted by the National People's Congress, effective December 4, 1982, revised March 14, 2004Google Scholar
General Rule on the Organization of the Temporary People's Mediation Committees, promulgated by the Administration Council on March 22, 1954Google Scholar
Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region Regulations on People's Prairie Management, issued by the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region People's Congress, effective January 1, 2005Google Scholar
Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture Halal Food Production Administrative Measures, passed by the Fourth Meeting of the Eleventh Session of the Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture People's Congress, April 11, 1999Google Scholar
People's Mediation Law of the PRC, issued August 28, 2010, by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, effective as of January 1, 2011Google Scholar
Regional Ethnic Autonomy Law of the PRC, passed by the National People's Congress, May 31, 1984, amended February 28, 2001Google Scholar
Regulations on the Organization of People's Mediation Committees, promulgated by the State Council on May 5, 1989Google Scholar
Religious Affairs Regulations, passed by the State Council on June 7, 2004, amended March 1, 2005Google Scholar