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Expanding U.S. Surveillance Powers: The Costs of Secrecy

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 June 2016

Athan Theoharis
Athan Theoharis*
Affiliation:
Marquette University
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Type
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Information
Journal of Policy History , Volume 28 , Special Issue 3: Governing the Security State , July 2016 , pp. 515 - 534
Copyright
Copyright © Donald Critchlow and Cambridge University Press 2016 

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References

NOTES

1. New York Times, 30 and 31 May 2001, Attorney General Guidelines on General Crime, Racketeering Enterprise and Terror Enterprise Investigations, 30 May 2001, www.doj.gov/olp/index/#agguide.

2. USA Patriot Act of 2001 115 Stat. 272, New York Times, 17–18, 20, 21, 28 September 2001; 1–2, 4, 12–13, 18, 25–27 October 2001.

3. USA Patriot Improvement and Reauthorization Act of 2005, Public Law No. 109–117, 119. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, A Review of the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s Use of National Security Letters, March 2007, viii–ix, 1–3, 10–11, www.usdoj.gov/oig/report/0703.

4. Inspector General, Review of NSLs, xvi–xx, xxviii–xxxix, 31–39, 60, 66–67, 70, 95–97, 120–21; New York Times, 21 January 2010.

5. New York Times, 17 November 2002; 25 March 2003; 23 November 2003; 30 December 2003; 10, 11 February 2004; 5 July 2004; 25, 28, 30 August 2004; 7 April 2005; 17 June 2005; 18 July 2005; 20 December 2005; 21, 25 September 2010; 25 February 2011; 29 May 2011; 11 July 2011; 21 October 2011; 25 December 2012; 23 May 2014. Press release, American Civil Liberties Union, 4 May 2006, www.aclu.org/spyfiles. Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, 18 April 2013 and 16 March 2006. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General, A Review of the FBI’s Investigations of Certain Domestic Advocacy Groups, September 2010, 186.

6. Aaronson, Trevor, The Terror Factory: Inside the FBI’s Manufactured War on Terrorism (Brooklyn, N.Y., 2013), 15.Google Scholar

7. For a full discussion of the behind-the-scenes decisions after September 11, see Savage, Charlie, Power Wars: Inside Obama’s Post-9/11 Presidency (New York, 2015).Google Scholar

8. Offices of Inspectors General of the Department of Defense, Department of Justice, Central Intelligence Agency, National Security Agency, and Office of the Director of National Intelligence, Unclassified Report of the President’s Surveillance Program, Report # 2009-0013-0709, 10 July 2009, 1, 4–6, www.usdoj.gov/report/0709. New York Times, 16, 18, 21–22, 24 December 2005; 7 February 2006; 13 April 2006; 12–14, 17–18 May 2006; 1 July 2006.

9. Unclassified Report, 31. New York Times, 16, 18, 20 December 2005; 23, 25 January 2008; 9, 13–14, 23, 27 February 2008; 1, 11, 15 March 2008; 28 April 2008; 10, 20–21 June 2008; 2, 10, July 2008.

10. Unclassified Report, 9, 32–34, 36, 38. New York Times, 17 January 2006; 11, 13–14, 18 February 2006; 14, 18 May 2006; 1 July 2006; 24 August 2007; 20 October 2007; 7 November 2007; 30 March 2008; 8 December 2008.

11. Ryan Grim, “Top Secret Document Reveals NSA Spied on Porn Habits as Part of Plan to Discredit Radicalization,” Huffington Post, 26 November 2013, www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/11/26/nsa-porn. New York Times, 7, 9 June 2013; 12 July 2013; 31 October 2013; 5, 10 December 2013; 15, 28 January 2014; 7, 21 July 2014. Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, 31 October 2013 and 7 July 2014.

12. New York Times, 8, 10–12 17, 19 June 2013; 19 December 2013; 23 January 2014; 30 June 2014.

13. Confidential Memos, Hoover, 24 and 25 August 1936, Franklin D. Roosevelt folder, Official and Confidential File of FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover (hereafter Hoover O&C).

14. U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Government Operations with respect to Intelligence Activities (hereafter Select Committee), Hearings on Intelligence Activities, vol. 6, Federal Bureau of Investigation, 94th Cong., 1st sess., 1975, 563.

15. Inga Arvad folder, Hoover O&C.

16. Henry Grunewald and H(Henry Grunewald) folders, Hoover O&C; FBI Report, 7–13 September 1943, FBI 87-2755-85; Memo, Belmont to Boardman, 27 June 1955, FBI 62-9444-Not Recorded; H (Henry Grunewald) Summary, FBI 62-116758. Do Not File Memos, Spear to Foxworth, 17 May 1941; Tamm to Foxworth, 16 June 1941; and Fitch to Foxworth, 25 July 1941; all in FBI 62-116758.

17. Blind Memo, 11 March 1942 and memo, Hoover to Biddle, 11 March 1942, FBI 100-94623-4; Do Not File Memo, Ladd to Hoover, 17 September 1942, FBI 62-116758.

18. FBI COMPIC file, FBI 100-138754.

19. Alexander Stephan, “Communazis”: FBI Surveillance of German Émigré Writers (New Haven, 2000).

20. Select Committee, vol. 6, Federal Bureau of Investigation, 659–60.

21. American Youth Congress and Eleanor Roosevelt folders, Official and Confidential File of FBI Assistant Director Louis Nichols (hereafter Nichols O&C); Joseph Lash folder, Hoover O&C; DeLoach, Cartha, Hoover’s FBI: The Inside Story by Hoover’s Trusted Lieutenant (Washington, D.C., 1995), 43–44.Google Scholar

22. Adlai Stevenson folder, Hoover O&C.

23. Inga Arvad, President John Kennedy, and Senator John Kennedy folders, Hoover O&C.

24. Dwight Eisenhower folder, Nichols O&C.

25. Joseph Alsop folder, Hoover OC.

26. Technical Summaries Sent to the White House folder, Hoover O&C.

27. Charns, Alexander, Cloak and Gavel: FBI Wiretaps, Bugs, Informers, and the Supreme Court (Urbana, 1992), 1–11Google Scholar.

28. Robins, Natalie, Alien Ink: The FBI’s War on Freedom of Expression (New York, 1992)Google Scholar; Mitgang, Herbert, Dangerous Dossiers: Exposing the Secret War Against America’s Greatest Authors (New York, 1988)Google Scholar.

29. Keen, Mike, Stalking the Sociological Imagination: J. Edgar Hoover’s Surveillance of American Sociology (Westport, Conn., 1999).Google Scholar

30. Confidential Memo, Roosevelt to Jackson, 21 May 1940, Wiretapping Use folder, Hoover O&C.

31. Strictly Confidential Memo, Hoover to Tolson, Tamm, and Clegg, 28 May 1940, Wiretapping Use folder, Hoover O&C.

32. Theoharis, Athan, Abuse of Power: How Cold War Surveillance and Secrecy Policy Shaped the Response to 9/11 (Philadelphia, 2011), 75–78.Google Scholar

33. Ibid., 34, 37–38. JUNE Memo, Gale to DeLoach, 27 May 1966, Fred Black folder, Hoover O&C.

34. Do Not File Memo, Sullivan to DeLoach, 19 July 1966, “Black Bag Job” folder, Hoover O&C.

35. U.S. House, Subcommittee on Government Information and Individual Rights, Hearings on Hoover’s Files and FBI Record Keeping, 94th Cong., 1st sess., 1975, 141–45, 156–70. Memo, Hoover to Tolson and eleven other FBI assistant directors, 19 March 1953, FBI 66–2095–100.

36. Memo, Jones to Bishop, 4 November 1972, FBI 66-3286-Not Recorded.

37. Donner, Frank, The Age of Surveillance (New York, 1980), 254nGoogle Scholar.

38. FBI 61-7582 (the FBI’s file on the House Committee on Un-American Activities) and FBI 100-138754 (the FBI’s COMPIC file).

39. FBI 62-88217 (the FBI’s file on the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee).

40. Ibid. Memo, Clegg to Hoover, 30 May 1940, Smear Campaign Part II folder, Nichols O&C. See also Ybarra, Michael, Washington Gone Crazy: Senator Pat McCarran and the Great American Communist Hunt (Hanover, N.H., 2004)Google Scholar.

41. O’Reilly, Kenneth, Hoover and the Un-Americans: The FBI, HUAC, and the Red Menace (Philadelphia, 1983), 123, 338n60Google Scholar; Summers, Anthony, Official and Confidential: The Secret Life of J. Edgar Hoover (New York, 1994), 190–91.Google Scholar

42. Senator Joseph McCarthy folder, Hoover O&C; FBI 94-37708; FBI 121-41668; FBI 62-88217; FBI 62-96332; Miscellaneous A-Z folder, Nichols O&C. See also Sullivan, William, The Bureau: My Thirty Years in Hoover’s FBI (New York, 1979), 45–167.Google Scholar

43. Theoharis, Athan, Chasing Spies: How the FBI Failed in Counterintelligence But Promoted the Politics of McCarthyism in the Cold War Years (Chicago, 2002), 120–24, 247nGoogle Scholar; O’Reilly, Hoover and the Un-Americans, 111–12, 126, 322n28, 337n58.

44. FBI 62-93875 (the FBI’s Responsibilities Program file).

45. The FBI Story folder, Hoover O&C; Morris Ernst folder, Nichols O&C; FBI 94-3-40 (Courtney Ryley Cooper file); O’Reilly, Hoover and the Un-Americans, 140–44; Athan Theoharis, Spying on Americans: Political Surveillance from Hoover to the Huston Plan (Philadelphia, 1978), 133–34, 142, 154–55, 164–65, 172–77, 184–85, 286n46.

46. The companies were ITT World Communications, Western Union International, and RCA Global.

47. Select Committee, Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports on Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans, book III, 766–74; Select Committee, Hearings on the National Security Agency and Fourth Amendment Rights, vol. 5, pp. 57–60. See also Theoharis, Abuse of Power, 162–63.

48. Select Committee, Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports, 740–41, 765, 777–78, 783; Select Committee, Hearings on the National Security Agency, 58–60.

49. Select Committee, Supplementary Detailed Reports, 739, 743, 745–51, 764; Select Committee, Hearings on National Security Agency, 13–14, 30–34, 156–57; Bamford, James, The Puzzle Palace (New York, 1982), 319.Google Scholar