¹ See, for example, Turlach, Manfred, Kerala (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1970) [German]Google Scholar;Fie, Victor M., Kerala: Yenan of India (Bombay: Nachiketa Publications, 1970)Google Scholar; Hardgrave, Robert L. Jr, “The Kerala Communists: Contradictions of Power,” in Radical Politics in South Asia, ed. Brass, Paul R. & Franda, Marcus F. (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1973)Google Scholar; Zinkin, Taya, Reporting India (London: Chatto & Windus, 1962)Google Scholar; Mankekar, D. R., The Red Riddle of Kerala (Bombay: Manaktalas, 1965)Google Scholar; Nair, R. Ramakrishnan, How Communists Came to Power in Kerala (Trivandrum: Kerala Academy of Political Science, 1965)Google Scholar; Velayudhan, R., Kerala: The Red Rain Land (New Delhi: Indian Institute of Social Affairs, 1958)Google ScholarSingh, Jitendra, Communist Rule in Kerala (New Delhi: Diwan Chand Indian Information Centre, 1959).Google Scholar

² Schram, Stuart, Mao Tse-tung (London: Pelican, 1971), pp. 142–43Google Scholar; Lacouture, Jean, Ho Chi Minh (London: Pelican, 1969), pp. 54–57.Google Scholar

³ See, for example, Woodside, Alexander B., Community and Revolution in Modem Vietnam (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976), pp. 14–27Google Scholar; and Grieder, Jerome B., “Communism, Nationalism and Democracy: The Chinese Intelligentsia and the Chinese Revolution in the 1920's and the 1930's,” in Modern East Asia: Essays in Interpretation, ed. Crowley, James B. (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1970), p. 207.Google Scholar

⁴ Donald S. Zagoria in a series of statistical studies first regarded correlation of high population density and high landlessness as vital to communism's success in parts of Asia. He has since emphasized more the correlation of landlessness and high literacy rates. Zagoria, Donald S., “The Social Bases of Communism in Kerala and West Bengal: A Study in Contrast,” Problems of Communism, 12 (1973), 16–27Google Scholar; “A Note on Landlessness, Literacy and Agrarian Communism in India,” Archives europeennes de sociologie, 13 (1972), 326–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “The Ecology of Peasant Communism in Kerala,” American Political Science Review (March 1971), pp. 144–60.Google Scholar

⁵ India, Census Commissioner, Census of India, 1931: Travancore, XXV, Pt. 1, 283–87. Indian Year Book, 1941–42, p. 43.

⁶ Jeffrey, Robin, The Decline of Nayar Dominance: Society and Politics in Travancore, 1847–1908 (London: Sussex Univ. Press, 1976), pp. 75–83.Google ScholarGough, Kathleen, “Literacy in Kerala,” in Literacy in Traditional Societies, ed. Goody, Jack (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1968), pp. 132–60.Google Scholar

⁷ For Tranvancore: Jeffrey, Nayar Dominance, pp. 11–32. For Malabar and Cochin: Varghese, T. C., Agrarian Change and Economic Consequences (Calcutta: Allied Publishers, 1970), pp. 9–50.Google Scholar

⁸ Gopalan, A. K., In the Cause of the People (Madras: Orient Longman, 1973), p. 1.Google Scholar For social anthropology, see bibliography in Jeffrey, Nayar Dominance, pp. 355–58, particularly the work of A. Aiyappan, Kathleen Gough, and Joan Mencher.

⁹ Aiyappan, A., “Fraternal Polyandry in Malabar,” Man in India, 15 (1935), 109–18Google Scholar; Thurston, Edgar, Castes and Tribes of South India (Madras: Government Press, 1999), II, 396–97Google Scholar; Jeffrey, Nayar Dominance, pp. 146–47.

¹⁰ Sub-Collector, Tellicherry, to the Collector,Malabar, n.d. [Nov. 1934], Kerala Secretariat,Trivandrum [hereafter KS], Madras RevenueDept., G.O. No. 70, iojan. 1935. The right of anindividual to his or her share of a taravads assetswas made law in Travancore in 1925.

¹¹ It became a common pattern for Kerala Com-munists to remain bachelors or to marry only intheir 40s, partly because the marriage system hadbeen in such flux in their youth that they had noguardians to arrange their marriages. Interview, K.P.R. Gopalan, Kalliasseri, 23 Nov. 1975.

¹² Krishnan, T. V., Kerala's First Communist:Life of “Sakhavu” Krishna Pillai (New Delhi: Communist Party Publication, 1971), pp. 2–3.Google ScholarHindu, 14 May 1934, p. 16.

¹³ Krishnan, Krishna Pillai, pp. 8—11. The experiences of K. Damodaran and Puthuppalli Raghavan were strikingly similar. Interviews: K. Damodaran, New Delhi, 9 Dec. 1975; Puthuppalli Raghavan, Quilon, June 1974, August 1975. Compare this, too, with the quotation from Chu Teh in Friedman, Edward, Backward Toward Revolution (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1974), p. 219.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Somervell, T. H., Knife and Life in India (1940; rpt. London: Livingstone Press, 1955), p.135.Google Scholar

¹⁵ See, for example, Madras Presidency, Reportof the Malabar Tenancy Committee, 1927–28 (Madras: Government Press, 1928), II, 627.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Congress Socialist, 13 Feb. 1937, pp. 7–9. See also my “Status, Class and the Growth of Radical Politics,” in People, Princes and Paramount Power: Society and Politics in the Indian Princely States, ed. Jeffrey, Robin (Delhi: Oxford Univ. Press, 1978) pp. 136–69Google Scholar; and Jeffrey, , “The Social Origins of a Caste Association: The Founding of the S.N.D.P. Yogam,” South Asia, No. 4 (1974), pp. 39–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁷ The notes of Messrs. Innts and Evans on Tenancy Legislation for Malabar (n.p., n.d.). p. 52.

¹⁸ J. Gray, Officer on Special Duty, to the Secretary, Board of Revenue, 22 Nov. 1917, Tamilnad Archives, Madras [hereafter TNA], Madras Revenue Dept. G.O. No. 2941, 12 Aug. 1918.

¹⁹ Prakash Karat explores the impoverishment of the Malabar peasantry in two stimulating articles, “Agrarian Relations in Malabar, 1925–48,” Social Scientist, Nos. 14, 15 (Sept., Oct. 1973), pp. 30–43 and 24–37.Google Scholar

²⁰ I hope to examine in another paper the failureof the Communists to make an impact on the Mappilla peasantry. The Party strove hard but unsuccessfully to do so in 1946. See, for example, Madras Public, G.O. No. 491, 23 Feb. 1949 (KS).

²¹ Varghese, Agrarian Change, pp. 64–69; Jeffrey, Nayar Dominance, pp. 80–90.

²² Report of the Board of Conciliation of Trade Disputes in the Mats and Matting Industry 1939 (Trivandrum: Government Press, 1953), pp.129, 185.Google Scholar

²³ Sri Mulam Assembly Proceedings, VII (12 Nov. 1938), p. 35.

²⁴ Gopalan, Cause of the People, pp. 8–9. See also, History of the Freedom Movement in Kerala, ed. Menon, P. K. K. (Trivandrum: Government Press, 1972), II, 71–73, 94–104Google Scholar; Dale, Stephen F., “The Mappilla Outbreaks; Ideology and Social Conflict in Nineteenth-Century Kerala,” JAS, 35 (1975). 85–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wood, Conrad, “Historical Background of the Moplah Rebellion: Outbreaks, 1836–1919,” Social Scientist, No. 25 (1974), pp. 5–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Miller, Roland E., Mappila Muslims of Kerala (Madras: Orient Longman, 1976), pp. 100–53.Google Scholar

²⁵ Basheer, Vaikom Muhammad, “Palaya oru kochu prēmakatha” in Vis¯vavikhyātamāya mūkku (1954, rpt. Kottayam: National Book Stall, 1970), p. 22.Google Scholar

²⁶ Dev, P. Kesava, “Baṣīrum, varugīs vaidyanum, ¯ānum” in Ōrmmakalute lōkattil (Kottayam: National Book Stall, 1972), p. 128.Google Scholar

²⁷ Namboodiripad, E. M. S., Ātmakatha (Trivandrum: Deshabhimani Book House, 1969), pp. 240–41.Google Scholar

²⁸ Nehru to K. Madhavan Nair, 10 June 1928, in Menon, Freedom Movement, II, p. 146. Congress membership in Kerala in 1929 was said to be 3,265; Hindu, 14 Oct. 1929. I am grateful toChristopher May for this reference.

²⁹ “A Short History of Satyagraha in Kerala,” n.d. AICC Papers, G-107/1930 [hereafter “Short History”].Menon, K.P. Kesava, Samakālīnarāyacila kēralḷiyar (Kottayam: National Book Stall, 1974), p. 207Google Scholar. Menon, Freedom Movement, II, p. 1840, lists the members of the jatha. Useful biographical detail is in Who is Who of Freedom Fighters in Kerala, ed. K. Karunakaran Nair (Trivandrum: Government Press, 1975).

³⁰ Krishnan, Krishna Pillai, p. 14.

³¹ Ibid., p. 16.

³² “Short History.”

³³ Ibid. Madras Fortnightly Report for the firsthalf of May 1930 [hereafter FR1 or FR 2 + month] (TNA).

³⁴ Madras Public, G.O. No. 1085, 26 Aug.1930 (TNA). Madras FR2 June 1930 (TNA). Madras FR1 Sept. 1930. Madras FR1 Dec. 1930.Madras FR2 Dec. 1930. FR2 Apr. 1931. Figures extracted from Madras FRs.

³⁵ See, for example, Grieder, “Chinese Revolution,” p. 212; Friedman, Backward toward Revolution, p. 219; and Selden, Mark, The Yenan Way in Revolutionary China (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1971), p. 93.Google Scholar

³⁶ “Movement in Kerala,” n.d., AICC Papers, G-107/1930 [hereafter “Movement”].

³⁷ District Magistrate, Malabar, to the Madras Government, 30 Dec. 1930, Madras Public, G.O. No. 45, 10 Jan. 1931 (TNA). Only Guntur District, with 108, exceeded Malabar. E.C. Wood, District Magistrate, Malabar, Report, 6 Jan. 1931, National Archives of India [hereafter NAT], Home Political Department [hereafter H. Poll], 14/21/32. For the temple-entry satyagraha undertaken during the lull of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, see “The Temple-entry Satiagraha in Guruvayur,” n.d., AICC Papers, P-14/1932. Also Menon, Freedom Movement, II, pp. 266–78.

³⁸ Madras FR1 May 1932; A.V. Kuttimalu Amma, 9th Dictator, to the President, AICC, 19 Feb. 1932, AICC Papers, P-14/1932; Statement of V.K. Sivarama Panikkar, 3 Nov. 1932, Madras Public, G.O. No. 1627, 16 Dec. 1932 (TNA). K.C. Nambiar, 20th Dictator, to the President, AICC, 24 Aug. 1932. AICC Papers P-14/1932.

³⁹ Chief Secretary's Note, 20 June 1933, Madras Public, G.O. No. 345, 10 July 1933 (TNA); Hindu (Madras), 29 June 1933, p. 12; 13 Sept. 1933, p. 17. K.P. Gopalan and K.A. Keraleeyan at a public meeting in Cannanore attacked the decision to call off civil disobedience. Govt, of Madras to the Govt, of India, 2 Aug. 1933, H. Poll, 4/10/1933 (NAI).

⁴⁰ Gopalan, Cause of the People, p. 18; Namboodiripad, Ātmakatba, p. 278. For similar experiences in Bengal, see Laushey, David M., Bengal Terrorism and the Marxist Left (Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay, 1975), pp. 100—110.Google Scholar In his forthcoming book on Vietnam in the twentieth century, David Marr draws a parallel between the Long March in China and the jail life of the Vietnamese revolutionaries as crucial experiences which forged comradeship and heightened political consciousness.

⁴¹ Swadeshabhimani, 1–3–1099 Malayalam Era [Oct. 1924], p. 83. Copy owned by Puthuppalli Raghavan, Quilon. For an English translation of the Malayalam biography of Marx, see Joshi, P.C. & Damodaran, K., Marx Comes so India (Delhi: Manohar Book Service, 1975), pp. 74–123.Google Scholar

⁴² Kesava Dev, Lōkattil, pp. 77–78; Krishnan,Krishna Pillai, p. 14.

⁴³ Namboodiripad, Ātmakatha, p. 288.

⁴⁴ Ibid., p. 290.

⁴⁵ Ibid., pp. 284, 290–1; Gopalan, Cause of the People, p. 19; Krishnan, Krishna Pillai, p. 19; Laushey, Bengal Terrorism, pp. 110–20.

⁴⁶ Interview, K.P. Gopalan; Krishnan, Krishna Pillai, p. 24.

⁴⁷ Madras States FR2 Mar. 1931; Travancore Government English Records, Confidential Section [hereafter CS], 775/1931 (KS). Interview, N.C. Sekhar, Cannanore, 24 Nov. 1975. Kurukkal wasan Ambalavasi, a caste-Hindu.

⁴⁸ Madras Public, G.O. No. 1449, 6 Sept. 1935 (TNA).

⁴⁹ Krishnan, Krishna Pillai, p. 29. Commissioner of Police to the Chief Secretary, 5 July 1936, CS, 1092/1936.

⁵⁰ Interview, Damodaran, K.; Damodaran, K. and Ali, Tariq, “Memoir of an Indian Communist,” New Left Review, No. 93 (1975), pp. 38–39.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Hindu, 14 May, p. 16, 13 Sept. 1934, p. 17; C.K. Govindan Nair, Joint Secretary, to the President, AICC, 13 Sept, 1934, AICC, P-15/1934; Weekly Secret Bulletin [Travancore], 1, No. 39 (22 Sept. 1934); Hindu, 18 Oct. 1934, p. 19.

⁵² Menon, Freedom Movement, II, p. 407n.

⁵³ Hindu, 25 April 1934, p. 18; 12 May, p. 21;12 June, p. 12; 16 June, p. 21.

⁵⁴ The committee consisted of P. Krishna Pillai, K.P. Gopalan, and Chandroth Kunhiraman Nair. Report, 29 Dec. 1934, AICC, P-15/1934.

⁵⁵ Hindu, 12 Feb. 1935, p. 18.

⁵⁶ Kesava Dev, Lokattil, pp. 149–51; Madras States FR1 Oct. 1932; Hindu, 3 July 1933, p. 13, and 9 Jan. 1932, p. 5.

⁵⁷ Congress Socialist, 10 Mar. 1935, p. 16. This was followed by a brief strike in a nearby tile factory. Hindu, 6 Mar. 1935, p. 21.

⁵⁸ Congress Socialist, 8 Feb. 1936, p. 19.

⁵⁹ Ibid., 30 May 1936, p. 18.

⁶⁰ Hindu, 15 Jan. 1936, p. 17; 20 Jan., p. 21.

⁶¹ Prabhatam, 4 Mar. 1935 in Madras Public, G.O. No. 544, 3 Apr. 1935 (KS).

⁶² Ibid., 11 Mar. 1935.

⁶³ Ibid., 26 Apr. 1935.

⁶⁴ Hindu, 1 Aug. 1935, p. 15; 15 Aug., p. 16;2 Aug., p. 14; 29 Aug., p. 18; Namboodiripad, Ātmakatha, pp. 377–88.

⁶⁵ Report of the Malabar Tenancy Committee (Madras: Government Press, 1940), II, p. 249Google Scholar, evidence of K. Kunhiraman [hereafter MTC 1940]; “How the Malabar Peasants Should Fight and For What?” n.d. [c. 1939], translation of pamphlet, H. Poll, 7/9/41.

⁶⁶ Hindu, 20 Dec. 1938, p. 17; “Circular No. 14,” n.d. [c. 1940], H. Poll, 7/9/41.

⁶⁷ Congress Socialist, 30 May 1936, p. 18. For earlier attempts at agrarian organizations, see Hindu, 7 (29 Nov. 1933), 12, 20; Namboodiripad, E.M.S., How I Became a Communist (Trivandrum: Chintha Publishers, 1976), pp. 152–53.Google Scholar Krishnan, Krishna Pillai, p. 31, says the key meeting was in 1934; in fact it was in November 1936. Hindu, 4 Nov. 1936, p. 17. For the spread of the ideas of the caste reformers, Nair, P. Narayanan, Aranurrāntilute (Kottayam: National Book Stall, 1973).P. 32.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ National Front, 28 Aug. 1938, pp. 9, 18; Madras FR₂ May 1937 (TNA); Jeffrey, Robin, “Peasant Movements and the Communist Party in Kerala, 1937–57,” in Peasants and Politics:Grass Roots Reactions to Change in Asia, ed. Miller, D.B. (Melbourne: Edward Arnold, 1978).Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Madras FRi Dec. 1938, FRi Feb. 1939; MTC 1940, II, p. 281, evidence of M. P. Madhavan Nambudiri; A.K. Gopalan, speech, 23 Nov.1938, H.Poll, 7/9/41.

⁷⁰ “Activities of the All-Malabar Peasants' Union,” 30 Apr. 1941, H. Poll, 7/9/41 [hereafter ”Activities”].

⁷¹ Ibid.

⁷² “Annual Report,” 3rd Chirakkal KarshakaConference, 1939; Extract from notebook of V.Narayan, volunteer; “Circular Nos. 14 and 18”, n.d. [c. 1940], all in H. Poll., 7/9/41.

⁷³ Hindu, 6 July 1938, p. 4; CS, 774/1940; Madras Public, G.O. No. 2232, 3 Dec. 1939 (TNA); V.T. Baylay, Intelligence Bureau, Home Dept., Govt, of India, to E.H. Colebrook, Supt. Of Police, Special Branch, CID, Madras, 21 May 1940, CS, 171/1940; Madras Public, G.O. No. 238, 3 Feb. 1939 (TNA). Karat, Prakash, “Organized Struggles of Malabar Peasantry, 1934–40,” Social Scientist, No. 56, (1977), pp. 12–13.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ The membership fee was two annas a year. MTC 1940, II, p. 319, evidence of T.S. Subramaniam Tirumumpu; p. 186, evidence of P. Narayanan Nair. “Activities,” H. Poll, 7/9/41.

⁷⁵ MTC 1940, II, pp. 186, 266.

⁷⁶ The cases are in Madras Home, G.O. No. 3903, 18 July 1939 (KS) and Madras Public, G.O. No. 2135, 29 Oct. 1940(TNA).

⁷⁷ Hindu, 4 Feb. 1936, p. 13; 16 Nov., p. 18; 3 Jan. 1939, p. 5. V. Ramunny, President, Malabar Aided Elementary Teachers' Union, to the Secretary, KPCC, 11 Aug. 1939, AICC Papers, P-12/Pt. 1.

⁷⁸ Namboodiripad, Communist, pp. 199–201.

⁷⁹ Interviews: E.M.S. Namboodiripad, Trivandrum, 23 March 1978; Sekhar, N.C.; Damodaran, K.. Ghate, S.V., “Remember Krishna Pillai,” New Age, 7 Apr. 1957, p. 18.Google Scholar Krishnan, Krishna Pillai, p. 68, says 5 men met Ghate, but he does not name them. New Age, 17 Mar. 1957, p. 8, gives 1937 as the date for the formation of the first communist cell and gives 4 names. K. Damodaran in an interview named the same 4. See also, Namboodiripad, Communist, p. 211.

⁸⁰ Hindu, 28 Apr. 1937, p. 15; Cmsr. of Police, Cochin, to the Dewan, 30 Apr. 1937, Dewan's Letters, Cochin, Cmsr. of Police File (Kerala State Archives, Ernakulam) [hereafter KSA, E]; Madras FR2 Nov. 1937; Congress Socialist, 27 Nov. 1937 p. 16Google Scholar, for examples of leading Communists using the Congress “cover.”

⁸¹ Interview, K. Damodaran.

⁸² New Age, 7 Apr. 1957, p. 7; p. Kesava Dev,”Panimutakku” in Ormakalute lōkattil, p. 99.

⁸³ Namboodiripad, E.M.S. to Ghate, S.V., 13 Sept. 1938 in Cochin Dewan's Letters to and from the Resident (KSA, E).Google Scholar

⁸⁴ Interview, K. Damodaran. For Namboodiripad, see R.K. Shanmukhan Chetty, Dewan, to C.P. Skrine, Resident, 1 Nov. 1938 in Cochin Dewan's Letters to and from the Resident. See also, Jeffrey, Robin, “A Sanctified Label—'Congress’ in Travancore Politics,” in Congress and the Raj, ed. Low, D.A. (London: Heinemann, 1977), pp. 453–54.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ Congress Socialist, 20 Nov. 1937, pp. 17–18.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ Peety, , by “Through Struggles and Sacrifices,” in Communist Party of India 9th Congress Souvenir (Cochin: C. Unniraja, 1971), p. 159; Gopalan, Cause of the People, p. 136; interviews, N.C. Sekhar, K.P. Gopalan, K.P.R. Goplan; Krishnan, Krishna Pillai, p. 68, puts the meeting in November and the attendance at 90.Google Scholar

⁸⁷ Krishnan, Krishna Pillai, p. 72.

⁸⁸ G. Ramachandran to Rajendra Prasad, 26 Dec. 1939, AICC Papers, P-39/1939–40.

⁸⁹ Madras Public, G.O. No. 2135, 29 Oct.1940 (TNA); H. Poll, 5/22/40 (NAI).

⁹⁰ R.K.L. Nandkeolyar & P. Subarayyan, Report, 8 Oct. 1940, AICC Papers, P-11/1942–46.They were convinced the Protest Day confrontation was “a deliberate attempt to either stampede the A.I.C.C. into action [against the war] or to forestall its decision [not to oppose the war].”

⁹¹ Press Note, 22 Sept. 1940, H. Poll, 5/22/40; Gopalan, Cause of the People, p. 142.

⁹² District Supt. of Police, Malabar, to the Inspector-General of Police, Madras, 23 Sept. 1940, Madras Public, G.O. No. 2135, 29 Oct. 1940 (TNA).

⁹³ People's Age, 25 Nov. 1945, pp. 6–8.Google Scholar

⁹⁴ Mathrubhumi [Calicut], 9 Jan. to 16 Feb.1940.

⁹⁵ Prabhatam Annual, June 1939, Madras Public, G.O. No. 1351, 17 Aug. 1939 (KS).

⁹⁶ Namboodiripad avoided arrest until the Party was legalized; A.K. Gopalan escaped from Vellore Jail and avoided rearrest. Hindu, 11 May 1941,p. 6; 2, 4 Aug. 1942, both p. 4; Madras Public, G.O. No. 2688, 24 Nov. 1941 (TNA); Madras FR₂ May 1941.

⁹⁷ J.S. Wilkes, Deputy Inspector-General of Police, to the Chief Secretary, Madras, 3 Apr. 1941, Madras Public, G.O. No. 811, 24 Apr. 1941 (KS).

⁹⁸ Johnson, Chalmers A., Peasant Nationalism and Communist Power: The Emergence of Revolutionary China (Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press, 1962)Google Scholar; Gillin, Donald G., “‘Peasant Nationalism’ in the History of Chinese Communism” [review of Johnson], JAS, 23 (1964), 269–89CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Duiker, William J., The Rise of Nationalism in Vietnam, 1900–1941 (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1976), p. 276.Google Scholar

⁹⁹ A.K. Gopalan and Namboodiripad were beaten by their Congress opponents by margins of three and five to one. Mathrubhumi, 27 Mar.1946, p. 4. For the CPI's new line in the late 1940s,see Overstreet, Gene D. & Windmiller, Marshall, Communism in India (Berkeley: Univ. of Cal.Press, 1960), pp. 265–75.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁰ The ministers were Namboodiripad himself, K.P. Gopalan, C. Achutha Menon (the Cochin leader), and K.C. George, and T.V. Thomas of Travancore. I am grateful to Christopher May for his information on the district committees in 1957.

¹⁰¹ For a colorful, though not always accurate account, see Zinkin, Reporting India, pp. 159–203.

¹⁰² Kessinger, Tom G., Vilyatpur, 1848–1968 (Berkeley: Univ. of Cal. Press, 1974), pp.178–201, and others argue against the proposition that the joint-family in India is disappearing. In Vilyatpur, for example, the joint-family “has notbeen replaced by the nuclear family and a growing spirit of individualism” (p. 201, emphasis added).Google Scholar

¹⁰³ Franda, Marcus F., Radical Politics in West Bengal (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1971), pp. 6–7, 13–41, 244Google Scholar; Dasgupta, Biplab, The Naxalite Movement (New Delhi: Allied, 1974), p. 20Google Scholar; Weiner, Myron, Political Change in South Asia (Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay, 1963), pp. 184–85, 197, 208–12, 226–27Google Scholar. For Bombay, see Omvedt, Gail, “Non-Brahmans and Communists in Bombay,” Economic and Political Weekly, 21 and 28 Apr. 1972, pp. 749–59, 800–5Google Scholar; and Roger Stuart, “The Formation of the Communist Party of India, 1920–36,” Diss., Australian National Univ. 1978, Chap. 4, “Taking Marxism to Its Class, 1927–29.” The rebellion in Telengana in 1946–49 appears to have owed as much to the incompetence and oppression of the Nizam of Hyderabad's government as to the organization of the Communist party. Elliott, Carolyn M., “Decline of a Patrimonial Regime: The Telengana Rebellion in India, 1946–51,” JAS, 34 (1974), 27–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁰⁴ Grieder, “Communism,” p. 207.

¹⁰⁵ Friedman, Revolution, p. 119.

¹⁰⁶ Ibid., p. 219.

¹⁰⁷ Woodside, Vietnam, pp. 7, 23, 16.

¹⁰⁸ Friedman, Revolution, p. 219. See also, Selden, Yenan Way, p. 93.