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Slavery in Nineteenth Century Egypt

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 January 2009

Gabriel Baer
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In nineteenth-century Egypt Circassian females were mostly kept in the harems of wealthy Turks, the concubines of ‘middle class’ Egyptians generally were Abyssinians, while male and female Negro slaves were used for domestic service by almost all layers of Egyptian society. In addition to domestic service, black slaves were used as soldiers by Egypt's rulers and, contrary to the prevalent assumption, as agricultural workers on the farms of the Muḥammad Alī family and elsewhere in Upper Egypt and during periods of prosperity and shortage of labour also in Lower Egypt. Apparently there were at least 30,000 slaves in Egypt at different times of the nineteenth century, and probably many more.

White slaves were brought to Egypt from the eastern coast of the Black Sea and from the Circassian settlements of Anatolia via Istanbul. Brown and black slaves were brought (a) from Darfur to Asyūṭ, directly or through Kordofan; (b) from Sennar to Isnā; (c) from the area of the White Nile; (d) from Bornu and Wadāy via Libya and the Western Desert; (e) from Abyssinia and the East African coast through the Red Sea. The slave dealers in Egypt were mainly people from Upper Egypt and the Oases, beduin and villagers of the Buḥayra province. They were divided into dealers in black and in white slaves and organized in a guild with a shaykh. Cairo was the great depot of slaves and the centre of the trade, but a very important occasion for trading in slaves was the annual mawlid of Ṭanṭā.

Official measures taken against the slave-trade were among the important causes for the final disappearance of slavery in Egypt. These were, amongst others, the appointment of foreigners, mainly British, as governors of the Sudan and commanders of special missions to suppress the trade; two Anglo-Egyptian conventions, of 1877 and of 1895, for the suppression of slavery; and, from 1877 on, the establishment of offices and later a special service for the fight against the trade and for the manumission of slaves. However, were it not for the internal development of Egyptian society, these measures could never have succeeded; this is illustrated by the tremendous obstacles they encountered and their ineffectiveness for a long time. During the last two decades of the nineteenth century most of these impediments vanished. In addition to the Mahdist revolution and the reconquest of the Sudan, the most important change was the emergence of a free labour market as a result of accelerated urbanization and the collapse of the guild system. At the same time a small but important section of Egyptians had changed their attitudes towards slavery as a result of their cultural contact with Europe.

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Articles
Information
The Journal of African History , Volume 8 , Issue 3 , November 1967 , pp. 417 - 441
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1967

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118 For text see Treaty Series, no. 6 (1896), C. 8011. French text also in Gelat, 3ème période, 1894–6, I (Alexandria, 1897), 584–90, and in Gouvernement Egvptien, Ministère de l'Intérieur,Google ScholarLégislation administrative et criminelle, 3ème edition, II (Cairo, 1914), 179–186.Google Scholar

119 Ibid.. 186–9.

120 Ibid.. I (Cairo, 1912), 464–7.

121 For trials in the late 1880s and the early 1890s see sources mentioned in note 71. For the late 1890s see, for instance, Sir Scott, John, ‘L'abolition de l'esclavage en Egypte’, Revue de l'Islam, VI (Paris, 1901), 92.Google Scholar

122 For a concise treatment of this matter see Holt, P. M., A Modern History of the Sudan (London, 1961), 64–70. For details see especially Gray, passim.Google Scholar

123 Gordon to Consul General, Cairo (telegram), Khartoum, 28 July 1879, F.O. 141/131.Google Scholar

124 See Colquhoun to Russell, Alexandria, 17 Aug. 1863, F.O. 84/1204;Google ScholarStanton to Clarendon, Alexandria, 4 May 1866, F.O. 84/1260;Google ScholarReade to Stanley, Alexandria, 9 Aug. 1867, F.O. 141/63;Google ScholarBorg to Vivian, Cairo, 1 July 1878, F.O. 141/220;Google ScholarBorg to Lascellcs, Cairo, 8 Sept. 1879, F.O. 141/129;Google ScholarCookson to Malet, Alexandria, 17 May 1880, F.O. 141/138;Google Scholardella Sala to Riaz, Cairo, 12 Sept. 1880, F.O. 241/140.Google Scholar

125 Reade to Stanley, Alexandria, 25 Aug. 1867, F.O. 84/1277.Google Scholar

126 Borg to Malet, Cairo, 8 May 1880, F.O. 141/138; Hogg to Malet, Assiout, 3 May 1880, F.O. 141/140.Google Scholar

127 Hogg to Malet, ibid., and 6 April 1881, F.O. 141/151; Circular of Riaz to governors, Cairo, 29 Feb. 1880, F.O. 141/139.Google Scholar

128 Della Sala to Malet, Cairo, 26 Oct. 1880, F.O. 141/140;Google ScholarWest to Malet, Suez, II Jan. 1881, reprinted in Malet, 94.Google Scholar

129 Cf. Rogers to Vivian, Cairo, 2 Aug. 1873, F.O. 141/82;Google Scholarde Malortie, Baron, Native Rulers and Foreign Interference (London, 1882), 116.Google Scholar

130 Cf. Borg to Vivian, Cairo, 65 Aug. 1878, F.O. 141/121;Google ScholarBorg to Lascelles, Cairo, 8 Sept. 1879, F.O. 141/129;Google Scholardella Sala to Malet, Cairo, 26 Oct. 1880, F.O. 141/140.Google Scholar

131 Cf. Borg to Cookson, Cairo, 21 Oct. 1877, F.O. 141/112.Google Scholar For the concepts of satara and kashafa see, for instance, Berger, M., The Arab World Today (New York, 1962), 163–5.Google Scholar

132 Cf. Borg to Vivian, Cairo, 26 Sept. 1877, F.O. 141/112.Google Scholar

133 Cf. Cherif to Stanton, Cairo, 2 Jan. 1866, and West to Stanton, Suez, 10 Jan. 1866, F.O. 141/59;Google ScholarCalvert to Reade, Alexandria, Oct. 1867, F.O. 141/62;Google ScholarAtkin to Stanton, Mansoura, 12 May 1873;Google ScholarConsular Agent, Mansoura, to Vivian, 20 June 1873;Google ScholarWest to Vivian, Suez, 5 Aug. 1873, F.O. 141/82.Google Scholar

134 Stanley to Stanton, Alexandria, 16 Jan. 1867, F.O. 141/62; encl, in Rogers to Stanton, Cairo, 22 Feb. 1872, F.O. 141/78, Pt. I.Google Scholar

135 Sa¯mī, part 3, vol. 3 p. 1489.Google Scholar

136 See della Sala to Riaz, Cairo, 21 Mar. 1881, F.O. 141/151.Google Scholar

137 ‘Analysis of the slave trade convention of the 4th of August 1877’,Google ScholarZohrab to Malet, Cairo, 22 Jan. 1880, F.O. 141/138.Google Scholar

138 Della Sala to Malet, Cairo, 26 Oct. 1880, F.O. 141/140.Google Scholar

139 Majmū‘at al-awa¯mir al’aliyya wa'l-dakrīta¯t (Cairo, 1887), 58–9. Cf. Baring to Salisbury, Cairo, 12 Feb. 1887, Africa no. 4 (1887), C. 4994, p. 7.Google Scholar

140 Borg to Vivian, Cairo, 3 Feb. 1879, F.O. 141/128;Google ScholarBorg to Lascelles, Cairo, 8 Sept. 1879, F.O. 141/129;Google Scholardella Sala to Malet, Cairo, 26 Oct. 1880, F.O. 141/140;Google Scholarcf. de Guerville, A. B., New Egypt (London, 1905), 139.Google Scholar

141 For a description of this Home, see Lamba, H., ‘L'esclavage en Egypte’, Revue de l'Islam, VI (1901), 69–75. For Egyptian government contributions see Annexe B and C of the 1895 Convention, Législat ion adminutrative et criminelle, II, 183.Google Scholar

142 Reade to Stanton, Cairo, 28 May 1868, F.O. 141/65;Google Scholar‘Memorandum by Consul Reade on slave trade in Egypt’, London, 13 Aug. 1868, F.O. 84/1290;Google ScholarRogers to Clarendon, 24 Nov. 1869, F.O. 84/1305;Google ScholarRogers to Stanton, Cairo, 23 Apr. 1872, F.O. 141/78, pt. 2.Google Scholar

143 Vivian to Derby, Cairo, 14 Apr. 1877, F.O. 84/1472.Google Scholar

144 Borg to Vivian, Cairo, 2 May 1878, F.O. 240/120;Google Scholarsee also Borg to Vivian, Cairo, 23 Aug. 1878, F.O. 141/121.Google Scholar

145 Felice to Borg, Zagazig, I Mar. 1882, F.O. 141/160.Google Scholar

146 Cf. Holt, 121–2, 148.Google Scholar

147 Cf. Baer, G., ‘Urbanization in Egypt, 1820–1907’, paper submitted to the Conference on the Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East, Chicago, Oct. 1966.Google Scholar

148 Baer, Egyptian Guilds, 145–6, and passim.Google Scholar

149 Baring to Salisbury, Cairo, 12 Feb. 1887, Africa no. 4 (1887), C. 4994, p. 7; Report on the Finances, Administration, and Conditions of Egypt, and the Progress of Reforms, Egypt no. I (1896), C. 7978, pp. 22–4.Google Scholar

150 Report on the Administration and Conditions of Egypt, and the Progress of Reforms, 29 Mar. 1891, Egypt no. 3 (1891), C. 6321, p. 36,Google Scholarcf. Steckner, H., Beim Fellah und Khedive (Halle, a.S., 1892), 177–8.Google Scholar

151 Cf. Baer, G., A History of Landownership in modern Egypt, 1800–1950 (London, 1962), 28–38.Google Scholar

152 Chefik, Ahmed, L'esclavage au point de vue musulman (Cairo, 1891); translated Arabic by Abmad Zakī under the title Al-riqq fl'l-Isla¯m (Cairo, 1892): references below are to the Arabic translation. The book was written in an apologetic vein as a reply prominent members of the Catholic Church who had accused Islam and the Arabs for part in African slavery and the slave trade.Google Scholar

153 Shafiq, Al-riqq fi'l-Isla¯m, 67 ff., 85–92.Google Scholar

154 Ibid.. 94. This later became the accepted view of the Islamic Modernists. See, instance, Rashīd Rida¯, Tafsīr al-Mana¯r, Xl, 2nd ed. (Cairo, 2953), 288–9.

155 Shafīq, 95-6, 101. For a similar opinion expressed by the Egyptian paper al-Mu'ayyadGoogle Scholar see Ibid., appendix, 124.

156 Cf. Landau, J. M., Parliaments and Parties in Egypt (Tel-Aviv, 46–9.Google Scholar

157 See Egypt no. I (1896), C. 7978, pp. 22–4.Google Scholar