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Sovereignty, Mastery, and Law in the Danish West Indies, 1672–1733

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 August 2019

Gunvor Simonsen
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Abstract

In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, officers of the Danish West India and Guinea Company struggled to balance the sovereignty of the company with the mastery of St. Thomas’ and St. John's slave owners. This struggle was central to the making of the laws that controlled enslaved Africans and their descendants. Slave laws described slave crime and punishment, yet they also contained descriptions of the political entities that had the power to represent and execute the law. Succeeding governors of St. Thomas and St. John set out to align claims about state sovereignty with masters’ prerogatives, and this balancing act shaped the substance of slave law in the Danish West Indies. Indeed, the slave laws pronounced by and the legal thinking engaged in by island governors suggest that sovereignty was never a stable state of affairs in the Danish West Indies. It was always open to renegotiation as governors, with varying degrees of loyalty to the company and at times with questionable capability, strove to determine what sovereignty ought to look like in a time of slavery.

Keywords

Danish Caribbeansovereigntyslave lawslave masterycompany-state
Type
Articles
Information
Itinerario , Volume 43 , Special Issue 2: Colonial Entanglements: Crossroads, Contact Zones and Flows in Scandinavian Global History , August 2019 , pp. 283 - 304
Copyright
Copyright © 2019 Research Institute for History, Leiden University 

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Footnotes

*

Gunvor Simonsen is associate professor of history at Copenhagen University. Among other things, she has written about race and identity in West Africa (in today's Ghana) as well as on obeah, gender, and legal practices in the Danish West Indies (today the US Virgin Islands). Her book Slave Stories: Law, Representation, and Gender in the Danish West Indies (2017) reconstructs some of the narratives enslaved men and women crafted in their encounter with Danish judges in the Caribbean.

References

Bibliography

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Hall, Neville A. T. Slave Society in the Danish West Indies: St. Thomas, St. John and St. Croix. Mona, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press, 1992.Google Scholar
Handler, Jerome S. “Custom and Law: The Status of Enslaved Africans in Seventeenth-Century Barbados.” Slavery & Abolition 37 (2016): 233–55.Google Scholar
Heinsen, Johan. “Dissonance in the Danish Atlantic: Speech, Violence and Mutiny, 1672–1683.” Atlantic Studies (2015): 1–19.Google Scholar
Heinsen, Johan. Mutiny in the Danish Atlantic World: Convicts, Sailors and a Dissonant Empire. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2017.Google Scholar
Klooster, Wim, and Oostindie, Gert. Realm between Empires: The Second Dutch Atlantic, 1680–1815. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2018.Google Scholar
Krogh, Tyge. Oplysningstiden og det magisk: Henrettelser og korporlige straffe i 1700-tallets første halvdel. København: Samleren, 2000.Google Scholar
Lyngholm, Dorte Kook. Godsejerens ret, adelens retshåndhævelse i 1700-tallet - lov og praksis ved Clausholm birkeret. Auning: Dansk Center for Herregårdsforskning og Landbohistorisk Selskab, 2013.Google Scholar
Nicholson, Bradley J. “Legal Borrowing and the Origins of Slave Law in the British Colonies,” American Journal of Legal History 38:1 (1994): 38–54.Google Scholar
Olden-Jørgensen, Sebastian. “Enevoldsarveregeringsakten og Kongeloven: Forfatningsspørgsmålet i Danmark fra oktober 1660 til november 1665.” Historisk Tidsskrift 2 (1993): 295–321.Google Scholar
Olden-Jørgensen, Sebastian. “At vi maa frycte dig af idel kjærlighed: Magtudøvelse og magtiscenesættelse under den ældre enevælde.” Fortid og Nutid 4 (1997): 239–53.Google Scholar
Olsen, Poul Erik. “Danske Lov på de vestindiske øer.” In Danske og Norske lov i 300 år, edited by Tamm, Ditlev, 289–321. København: Jurist- og Økonomforbundets Forlag, 1983.Google Scholar
Olwig, Kenneth Robert. Landscape, Nature, and the Body Politic: From Britain's Renaissance to America's New World. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Oostindie, Gert, and Roitman, Jessica V., eds. Dutch Atlantic Connections, 1680–1800: Linking Empires, Bridging Borders. Leiden: Brill, 2014.Google Scholar
Palmer, Vernon Valentine. “The Origins and Authors of the Code Noir.” Louisiana Law Review 56:2 (1996): 363–407.Google Scholar
Paton, Diana. “Punishment, Crime, and the Bodies of Slaves in Eighteenth-Century Jamaica.” Journal of Social History 34:4 (2001): 923–54.Google Scholar
Paton, Diana. The Cultural Politics of Obeah: Religion, Colonialism and Modernity in the Caribbean World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Peabody, Sue. “Slavery, Freedom, and the Law in the Atlantic World, 1420–1807.” In The Cambridge World History of Slavery, edited by Eltis, David and Engerman, Stanley L., 594–630. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Peytraud, Lucien Pierre. Esclavage aux Antilles Françaises avant 1789. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1897.Google Scholar
Rupert, Linda M. Creolization and Contraband: Curaçao in the Early Modern Atlantic World. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Schiltkamp, Jacob Adriaan, and de Smidt, J. Th., eds. West Indisch plakaatboek: 1, Suriname, Plakaten, ordonnantiën en andere wetten uitgevaardigd in Suriname, 1667–1816. Amsterdam: S. Emmering, 1973.Google Scholar
Schiltkamp, , Adriaan, Jacob, de Smidt, Jacobus Thomas, and van der Lee, T., eds. West Indisch plakaatboek: 2, Nederlandse Antillen Benedenwinden: publikaties en andere wetten alsmede de oudste resoluties betrekking hebbende op Curaçao, Aruba, Bonaire. Amsterdam: Emmering, 1978.Google Scholar
Schiltkamp, , Adriaan, Jacob, de Smidt, Jacobus Thomas, and van der Lee, T., eds. West Indisch plakaatboek: 3, Nederlandse Antillen Bovenwinden: publikaties en andere wetten betrekking hebbende op St. Maarten, St. Eustatius, Saba 1648/1681–1816, Amsterdam: Emmering, 1979.Google Scholar
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Secher, V. A., ed. Kong Christian den Femtis Danske Lov. København: Schultz, 1891.Google Scholar
Sielemann, Rasmus Basse. Natures of Conduct: Governmentality and the Danish West Indies. Ph.D. diss. Saxo Institute, University of Copenhagen, 2015.Google Scholar
Simonsen, Gunvor. Slave Stories: Law, Representation, and Gender in the Danish West Indies. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 2017.Google Scholar
Stern, Philip D. The Company-State: Corporate Sovereignty and the Early Modern Foundation of the British Empire in India. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Tamm, Ditlev, ed. Danske og Norske lov i 300 år, festskriftet er udgivet i anledning af 300-året for udstedelsen af Christian V's Danske Lov. København: Jurist- og Økonomforbundets Forlag, 1983.Google Scholar
Tamm, , Ditlev, , ed. Retshistorie—Danmark—Europa—globale perspektiver. København: Jurist- og Økonomforbundets Forlag, 2005.Google Scholar
Thomasson, Frederik. “Thirty-Two Lashes at Quatre Piquets: Slave Laws and Justice in the Swedish Colony of St. Barthélemy, ca. 1800.” In Ports of Globalisation, Places of Creolisation: Nordic Possessions in the Atlantic World during the Era of the Slave Trade, edited by Weiss, Holger, 280–305. Leiden: Brill, 2015.Google Scholar
Watson, Alan. Slave Law in the Americas. London: University of Georgia Press, 1989.Google Scholar
Westergaard, Waldemar. The Danish West Indies under Company Rule (1671–1754): With a Supplementary Chapter, 1755–1917. New York: Macmillan Company, 1917.Google Scholar
Zacek, Natalie. Settler Society in the English Leeward Islands, 1670–1776. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Rigsarkivet, København:Google Scholar
Generaltoldkammeret (GTK), Vestindisk-guineisk renteskriverkontorGoogle Scholar
390, Visdomsbog, 1733–1783 (GTK 390)Google Scholar
441, Samlinger af skrevne love for øen St. Thomas, 1762–1806 (GTK, 411)Google Scholar
442, Koloniale plakater, bekendtgørelser og befalinger for St. Thomas og St. Jan, 1672–1842 (GTK 442)Google Scholar
Vestindisk-guineisk kompagni (VGK)Google Scholar
DirektionenGoogle Scholar
176, Guvernører og andre betjente i Vestindien vedk., 1684–1743 (VGK 176)Google Scholar
Det sekrete råd på St. ThomasGoogle Scholar
489, Sekretprotokol, 1723–1737 (VGK 489)Google Scholar
Guvernementet på St. Thomas og St. JanGoogle Scholar
502, Journal over det på St. Thomas passerede, 1702–1706 (VGK 502)Google Scholar
515, Plakatbøger fra St. Thomas, 1688–1736 (VGK 515)Google Scholar
Aarhus Universitet. “Kongeloven, 14 november 1665.” Danmarkshistorien.dk (website), accessed February 25, 2017. http://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/kongeloven-1665/.Google Scholar
Aubert, Guillaume. “‘To Establish One Law and Definite Rules’: Race, Religion, and the Transatlantic Origins of the Louisiana Code Noir.” In Louisiana: Crossroads of the Atlantic World, edited by Vidal, Cécile, 21–43. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Baecque, Antoine de. The Body Politic: Corporeal Metaphor in Revolutionary France, 1770–1800. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Benton, Lauren. Law and Colonial Cultures: Legal Regimes in World History, 1400–1900. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Benton, Lauren. A Search for Sovereignty: Law and Geography in European Empires, 1400–1900. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Bro-Jørgensen, J. O. Dansk Vestindien indtil 1755: Kolonisation og kompagnistyre, Vore gamle tropekolonier, edited by Brøndsted, Johannes. Vol. 1. Denmark: Fremad, 1966.Google Scholar
Brown, Vincent. “Spiritual Terror and Sacred Authority in Jamaican Slave Society.” Slavery & Abolition 24: 1 (2003): 24–53.Google Scholar
Carstens, Johan L. J. L. Carstens: En almindelig beskrivelse om alle de danske, americanske eller west-jndiske ey-lande. København: Dansk Vestindisk Forlag, 1981.Google Scholar
Carstens, Johan L. J. L. Carstens’ St. Thomas in Early Danish Times: A General Description of All the Danish, American or West Indian Islands, translated by Highfield, Arnold R.. St. Croix: Virgin Islands Humanities Council, 1997.Google Scholar
Engerman, Stanley, Drescher, Seymour, and Paquette, Robert, eds. Slavery. “An Act for the Better Ordering and Governing of Negroes, 1661,” 105–13. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Faye Jacobsen, Anette. Husbondret, rettighedskulturer i Danmark 1750–1920. København: Museum Tusculanums Forlag, 2008.Google Scholar
Feldbæk, Ole. Danske handelskompagnier 1616–1843: Oktrojer og interne ledelsesregler. København: Selskabet for Udgivelse af Kilder til Dansk Historie, 1986.Google Scholar
Gaspar, David Barry. “‘Rigid and Inclement’: Origins of the Jamaica Slave Laws of the Seventeenth Century.” In The Many Legalities of Early America, edited by Mann, Bruce H. and Tomlins, Christopher L., 78–96. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Gaspar, David Barry. “With a Rod of Iron: Barbados Slave Laws as a Model for Jamaica, South Carolina, and Antigua, 1661–1697.” In Crossing Boundaries. Comparative History of Black People in Diaspora, edited by Hine, Darlene Clark and McLeod, Jacqueline, 343–66. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Ghachem, Malick W. The Old Regime and the Haitian Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Gøbel, Erik. Vestindisk-guineisk Kompagni 1671–1754: Studier og kilder til kompagniet og kolonierne, med Peder Mariagers beretning om kompagniet. Odense: Odense Universitetsforlag, 2015.Google Scholar
Goveia, Elsa V. The West Indian Slave Laws of the 18th Century. Barbados: Caribbean University Press, 1970.Google Scholar
Greene, Sandra E. “From Whence They Came: A Note on the Influence of the West African Ethnic and Gender Relations on the Organizational Character of the 1733 St. John Slave Rebellion.” In The Danish West Indian Slave Trade, edited by Highfiled, Arnold R. and Tyson, George F., 47–67. St. Croix: Virgin Islands Humanities Council, 1994.Google Scholar
Hadden, Sally. “The Fragmented Laws of Slavery in the Colonial and Revolutionary Eras.” In The Cambridge History of Law in America edited by Grossberg, Michael and Tomlins, Christopher, 253–87. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Hall, Neville A. T. “Slave Laws of the Danish West Indies in the Later Eighteenth Century.” In Comparative Perspectives on Slavery in New World Plantation Societies, edited by Rubin, Vera and Tuden, Arthur, 174–85. New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1977.Google Scholar
Hall, Neville A. T. Slave Society in the Danish West Indies: St. Thomas, St. John and St. Croix. Mona, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press, 1992.Google Scholar
Handler, Jerome S. “Custom and Law: The Status of Enslaved Africans in Seventeenth-Century Barbados.” Slavery & Abolition 37 (2016): 233–55.Google Scholar
Heinsen, Johan. “Dissonance in the Danish Atlantic: Speech, Violence and Mutiny, 1672–1683.” Atlantic Studies (2015): 1–19.Google Scholar
Heinsen, Johan. Mutiny in the Danish Atlantic World: Convicts, Sailors and a Dissonant Empire. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2017.Google Scholar
Klooster, Wim, and Oostindie, Gert. Realm between Empires: The Second Dutch Atlantic, 1680–1815. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2018.Google Scholar
Krogh, Tyge. Oplysningstiden og det magisk: Henrettelser og korporlige straffe i 1700-tallets første halvdel. København: Samleren, 2000.Google Scholar
Lyngholm, Dorte Kook. Godsejerens ret, adelens retshåndhævelse i 1700-tallet - lov og praksis ved Clausholm birkeret. Auning: Dansk Center for Herregårdsforskning og Landbohistorisk Selskab, 2013.Google Scholar
Nicholson, Bradley J. “Legal Borrowing and the Origins of Slave Law in the British Colonies,” American Journal of Legal History 38:1 (1994): 38–54.Google Scholar
Olden-Jørgensen, Sebastian. “Enevoldsarveregeringsakten og Kongeloven: Forfatningsspørgsmålet i Danmark fra oktober 1660 til november 1665.” Historisk Tidsskrift 2 (1993): 295–321.Google Scholar
Olden-Jørgensen, Sebastian. “At vi maa frycte dig af idel kjærlighed: Magtudøvelse og magtiscenesættelse under den ældre enevælde.” Fortid og Nutid 4 (1997): 239–53.Google Scholar
Olsen, Poul Erik. “Danske Lov på de vestindiske øer.” In Danske og Norske lov i 300 år, edited by Tamm, Ditlev, 289–321. København: Jurist- og Økonomforbundets Forlag, 1983.Google Scholar
Olwig, Kenneth Robert. Landscape, Nature, and the Body Politic: From Britain's Renaissance to America's New World. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Oostindie, Gert, and Roitman, Jessica V., eds. Dutch Atlantic Connections, 1680–1800: Linking Empires, Bridging Borders. Leiden: Brill, 2014.Google Scholar
Palmer, Vernon Valentine. “The Origins and Authors of the Code Noir.” Louisiana Law Review 56:2 (1996): 363–407.Google Scholar
Paton, Diana. “Punishment, Crime, and the Bodies of Slaves in Eighteenth-Century Jamaica.” Journal of Social History 34:4 (2001): 923–54.Google Scholar
Paton, Diana. The Cultural Politics of Obeah: Religion, Colonialism and Modernity in the Caribbean World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Peabody, Sue. “Slavery, Freedom, and the Law in the Atlantic World, 1420–1807.” In The Cambridge World History of Slavery, edited by Eltis, David and Engerman, Stanley L., 594–630. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Peytraud, Lucien Pierre. Esclavage aux Antilles Françaises avant 1789. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1897.Google Scholar
Rupert, Linda M. Creolization and Contraband: Curaçao in the Early Modern Atlantic World. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Schiltkamp, Jacob Adriaan, and de Smidt, J. Th., eds. West Indisch plakaatboek: 1, Suriname, Plakaten, ordonnantiën en andere wetten uitgevaardigd in Suriname, 1667–1816. Amsterdam: S. Emmering, 1973.Google Scholar
Schiltkamp, , Adriaan, Jacob, de Smidt, Jacobus Thomas, and van der Lee, T., eds. West Indisch plakaatboek: 2, Nederlandse Antillen Benedenwinden: publikaties en andere wetten alsmede de oudste resoluties betrekking hebbende op Curaçao, Aruba, Bonaire. Amsterdam: Emmering, 1978.Google Scholar
Schiltkamp, , Adriaan, Jacob, de Smidt, Jacobus Thomas, and van der Lee, T., eds. West Indisch plakaatboek: 3, Nederlandse Antillen Bovenwinden: publikaties en andere wetten betrekking hebbende op St. Maarten, St. Eustatius, Saba 1648/1681–1816, Amsterdam: Emmering, 1979.Google Scholar
Sebro, Louise. “Kreoliseringen af eurocaribierne i Dansk Vestindien: Sociale relationer og selvopfattelse.” Fortid og Nutid 2 (2005): 83–102.Google Scholar
Sebro, Louise. “The 1733 Slave Revolt on the Island of St. John: Continuity and Change from Africa to the Americas.” In Scandinavian Colonialism and the Rise of Modernity: Small Time Agents in a Global Arena, edited by Naum, Magdalena and Nordin, Jonas M., 261–74. New York: Springer, 2013.Google Scholar
Secher, V. A., ed. Kong Christian den Femtis Danske Lov. København: Schultz, 1891.Google Scholar
Sielemann, Rasmus Basse. Natures of Conduct: Governmentality and the Danish West Indies. Ph.D. diss. Saxo Institute, University of Copenhagen, 2015.Google Scholar
Simonsen, Gunvor. Slave Stories: Law, Representation, and Gender in the Danish West Indies. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 2017.Google Scholar
Stern, Philip D. The Company-State: Corporate Sovereignty and the Early Modern Foundation of the British Empire in India. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Tamm, Ditlev, ed. Danske og Norske lov i 300 år, festskriftet er udgivet i anledning af 300-året for udstedelsen af Christian V's Danske Lov. København: Jurist- og Økonomforbundets Forlag, 1983.Google Scholar
Tamm, , Ditlev, , ed. Retshistorie—Danmark—Europa—globale perspektiver. København: Jurist- og Økonomforbundets Forlag, 2005.Google Scholar
Thomasson, Frederik. “Thirty-Two Lashes at Quatre Piquets: Slave Laws and Justice in the Swedish Colony of St. Barthélemy, ca. 1800.” In Ports of Globalisation, Places of Creolisation: Nordic Possessions in the Atlantic World during the Era of the Slave Trade, edited by Weiss, Holger, 280–305. Leiden: Brill, 2015.Google Scholar
Watson, Alan. Slave Law in the Americas. London: University of Georgia Press, 1989.Google Scholar
Westergaard, Waldemar. The Danish West Indies under Company Rule (1671–1754): With a Supplementary Chapter, 1755–1917. New York: Macmillan Company, 1917.Google Scholar
Zacek, Natalie. Settler Society in the English Leeward Islands, 1670–1776. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010.Google Scholar