Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T01:53:45.511Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Reviewing the Role of Wildfire on the Occurrence and Spread of Invasive Plant Species in Wildland Areas of the Intermountain Western United States

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Lisa J. Rew  and
Mara P. Johnson
Lisa J. Rew*
Affiliation:
Department of Land Resources and Environmental Sciences, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717
Mara P. Johnson
Affiliation:
Center for Invasive Plant Management, Department of Land Resources and Environmental Sciences, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717
*
Corresponding author's E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Fire is unlikely to be a simple, deterministic process that will result in increased rates of invasion by nonnative plants. Relative dominance of nonnative plants at any postfire site likely results from a combination of factors, including propagule pressure (aboveground and belowground), time since invasion, interspecific competition, disturbance history, rainfall patterns, soil nutrients, environmental heterogeneity, land use, plus the actual fire dynamics. Consequently, the role different factors play in nonnative plant invasion is still relatively unexplained, and the possibility that wildfire may promote nonnative plant species remains a concern. Our aim was to evaluate the state of knowledge concerning how nonnative plant species establish, survive, and spread following wildfire in wildland areas for the main vegetation types of the Intermountain West. Although the particular invading species varied with vegetation type, the most frequently reported species were annual grasses (e.g., downy brome [Bromus tectorum], Japanese brome [Bromus japonicus]) and long-distance, dispersing forbs (e.g., Canada thistle [Cirsium arvense], common dandelion [Taraxacum officinale], and prickly lettuce [Lactuca serriola]). Overall, many of the reviewed studies found an increase, followed by a long-term decline, in nonnative species after wildfire, particularly when other disturbances were minimal. Regardless of this finding, many people consider rapid detection and control of new, nonnative plant populations after wildfire one of the most effective management activities. That axiom may be correct, if the nonnative propagule pressure is high and the anthropogenic disturbances are frequent, but if this is not the case the question to answer is whether immediate management, including reseeding, will benefit the system or whether off-target effects could make that approach undesirable. Continued investigation and increased quantitative analysis of the complex factors that likely contribute to changes in nonnative plants dynamics following wildfire should improve our understanding of the issue and assist managers in allocating limited resources.

Keywords

Canada thistle, Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.dandelion, Taraxacum officinale G.H. Weber ex Wiggersdowny brome, Bromus tectorum L.Japanese brome, Bromus japonicus Thunb. ex Murr.prickly lettuce, Lactuca serriola L.Weedsnonindigenous plantsexoticswildlandsecosystem processeswildfirerestorationseedingdesert grasslandsmountain grasslandsdesert shrublandssagebrush shrublandspinyon–juniper woodlandsponderosa pine forestspruce forestlodgepole pinesubalpine fir forest
Type
Invited Review
Information
Invasive Plant Science and Management , Volume 3 , Issue 4 , December 2010 , pp. 347 - 364
Copyright
Copyright © Weed Science Society of America 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Literature Cited

Agee, J. K. 1993. Fire Ecology of Pacific Northwest Forests. Washington, DC Island. 493 p.Google Scholar
Anderson, J. E. and Romme, W. H. 1991. Initial floristics in lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) forests following the 1988 Yellowstone fires. Int. J. Wildland Fire 1 (2):119–124.Google Scholar
Asher, J. and Spurrier, C. 1998. The Spread of Invasive Weeds in Western Wildlands: A State of Biological Emergency. Boise, ID U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. Pp. 1–12.Google Scholar
Asher, J. E., Dewey, S., Johnson, C., and Olivarez, J. 2001. Reducing the spread of invasive exotic plants following fire in western forests, deserts, and grasslands. Pages 102–103. In Galley, K. E. M. and Wilson, T. P. eds. Proceedings of the Invasive Species Workshop: The Role of Fire in the Control and Spread of Invasive Species—Fire Conference 2000: The First National Congress on Fire Ecology, Prevention, and Management. Tallahassee, FL Tall Timbers Research Station Misc. Publication 11. [Abstract 40681].Google Scholar
Baker, W. L. and Shinneman, D. J. 2004. Fire and restoration of piñon-juniper woodlands in the western United States: a review. For Ecol. Manag 189 (1–3):1–21.Google Scholar
Barclay, A. D., Betancourt, J. L., and Allen, C. D. 2004. Effects of seeding ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) on vegetation recovery following fire in a ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forest. Int. J. Wildland Fire 13 (2):183–194.Google Scholar
Barney, M. A. and Frischknecht, N. C. 1974. Vegetation changes following fire in the pinyon–juniper type of west-central Utah. J. Range Manag 27 (2):91–96.Google Scholar
Beatley, J. C. 1966. Ecological status of introduced brome grasses (Bromus spp.) in desert vegetation of southern Nevada. Ecology 47 (4):548–554.Google Scholar
Benson, N. C. and Kurth, L. L. 1995. Vegetation establishment on rehabilitated bulldozer lines after the 1988 Red Bench Fire in Glacier National Park. Pages 164–167. In Brown, J. K., Mutch, R. W., Spoon, C. W., and Wakimoto, R. H., tech. coords. 1995. Proceedings of the Symposium on Fire in Wilderness and Park Management. Missoula, MT U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station INT-GTR-320. [Abstract].Google Scholar
Beschta, R. L., Rhodes, J. J., Kauffman, J. B., Griesswell, R. E., Minshall, G. W., Karr, J. R., Perry, D. A., Hauer, E. R., and Frissell, C. A. 2004. Postfire management on forested public lands of the western United States. Conserv. Biol 18 (4):957–967.Google Scholar
Blank, R. R., Trent, J. D., and Young, J. A. 1992. Sagebrush communities on clayey soils of northeastern California: a fragile equilibrium. Pages 198–202. In Clary, W. P., MacArthur, E. D., Bedunak, D., and Wambolt, C. L. eds. Proceedings on the Symposium on Ecology and Management of Riparian Shrub Communities. Ogden, UT U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station Publication 13.88:INT-289. [Abstract].Google Scholar
Bock, J. H. and Bock, C. E. 1992. Vegetation responses to wildfire on native versus exotic Arizona grassland. J. Veg. Sci 3:439–446.Google Scholar
Brooks, M. 2008. Effects of fire suppression and postfire management activities on plant invasions. Pages 269–279. In Zouhar, K., Smith, J. K., Sutherland, S., and Brooks, M. L. 2008. 2008a. Wildland Fire in Ecosystems: Fire and Non-Native Invasive Plants. Ogden, UT U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station GTR RMRS-GTR-42-vol 6. [Abstract].Google Scholar
Brooks, M. L. and Berry, K. H. 2006. Dominance and environmental correlates of alien annual plants in the Mojave Desert, U.S.A. J. Arid. Environ 67:100–124.Google Scholar
Brooks, M. L., D'Antonio, C. M., Richardson, D. M., Grace, J. B., Keeley, J. E., DiTomaso, J. M., Hobbs, R. J., Pellant, M., and Pyke, D. 2004. Effects of invasive alien plants on fire regimes. Bioscience 54 (7):677–688.Google Scholar
Brooks, M. L. and Esque, T. C. 2002. Alien plants and fire in desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) habitat of the Mojave and Colorado Desert. Chelonian Conserv. Biol 4 (2):330–340.Google Scholar
Brooks, M. L. and Matchett, J. R. 2003. Plant community patterns in unburned and burned blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissima Torr.) shrublands in the Mojave Desert. West. N. Am. Nat 63 (3):283–298.Google Scholar
Brooks, M. L. and Matchett, J. R. 2006. Spatial and temporal patterns of wildfires in the Mojave Desert, 1980–2004. J. Arid. Environ 67:148–164.Google Scholar
Brooks, M. L., Matchett, J. R., and Berry, K. H. 2006. Effects of livestock watering sites on alien and native plants in the Mojave Desert, U.S.A. J. Arid. Environ 67:125–147.Google Scholar
Brown, D. E. and Minnich, R. A. 1986. Fire and changes in creosote bush scrub of the western Sonoran Desert, California. Am. Midl. Nat 116 (2):411–422.Google Scholar
Brown, J. K. 2000b. Ecological principles, shifting fire regimes and management considerations. Pages 185–203. In Brown, J. K. and Smith, J. K. eds. Wildland Fire in Ecosystems: Effects of Fire on Flora. Ogden, UT U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. [Abstract].Google Scholar
Brown, J. K. and Smith, J. K. eds. 2000. Wildland Fire in Ecosystems: Effects of Fire on Flora. Ogden, UT U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. 257 p. [Abstract].CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cable, D. R. 1965. Damage to mesquite, Lehman lovegrass, and black gramma by a hot June fire. J. Range Manag 18:326–329.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cable, D. R. 1967. Fire effects on semidesert grasses and shrubs. J. Range Manag 20:170–176.Google Scholar
Cable, D. R. 1972. Fire effects in southwestern semidesert grass–shrub communities. Pages. 109–127. in Proceedings of the 12th Annual Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference. 1972 Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station. [Abstract].Google Scholar
Callison, J., Brotherson, J. D., and Bowns, J. E. 1985. The effects of fire on the blackbrush [Coleogyne ramosissima] community of southwestern Utah. J. Range Manag 38 (6:Google Scholar
Cave, G. H. and Patten, D. T. 1984. Short-term vegetation responses to fire in the upper Sonoran Desert. J. Range Manag 37 (6):491–495.Google Scholar
Cook, J. G., Hershey, T. J., and Irwin, L. L. 1994. Vegetative response to burning on Wyoming mountain–shrub big game ranges. J. Range Manag 47 (4):296–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, H. 1998. Synthesizing Research: A Guide for Literature Reviews. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA Sage.Google Scholar
Cooper, S. V. and Jean, C. 2001. Wildfire Succession in Plant Communities Natural to the Alkali Creek Vicinity, Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge, Montana. Helena, MT Montana Natural Heritage Program. 32 p.Google Scholar
Crawford, J. A., Wahren, C. H. A., Kyle, S., and Moir, W. H. 2001. Responses of exotic plant species to fires in Pinus ponderosa forests in northern Arizona. J. Veg. Sci 12 (2):261–268.Google Scholar
D'Antonio, C. M., Dudley, T. L., and Mack, M. 1999. Disturbance and biological invasions: direct effects and feedbacks. Pages 413–452. In Walker, L. R. ed. Ecosystems of Disturbed Ground. New York Elsevier.Google Scholar
D'Antonio, C. M. and Vitousek, P. M. 1992. Biological invasions by exotic grasses, the grass/fire cycle, and global change. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst 23:63–87.Google Scholar
DiTomaso, J. M., Brooks, M. L., Allen, E. B., Minnich, R., Rice, P. M., and Kyser, G. B. 2006. Control of invasive weeds with prescribed burning. Weed Technol 20 (2):535–548.Google Scholar
Dodge, S. and Fulé, P. Z. 2008. Dalmatian toadflax (Linaria dalmatica) response to wildfire in a southwestern U.S.A. forest. Ecoscience 15 (2):213–222.Google Scholar
Doyle, K. M., Knight, D. H., Taylor, D. L., Barrymore, W. J., and Benedict, J. M. 1998. Seventeen years of forest succession following the Waterfalls Canyon Fire in Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming. Int. J. Wildland Fire 8 (1):45–55.Google Scholar
Dukes, J. S. and Mooney, H. A. 2004. Disruption of ecosystem processes in western North America by invasive species. Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat 77 (3):411–437.Google Scholar
Dwyer, D. D. and Pieper, R. D. 1967. Fire effects on blue gramma–pinyon–juniper rangeland in New Mexico. J. Range Manag 20:359–362.Google Scholar
Eiswerth, M. E., Krauter, K., Swanson, S. R., and Zielinski, M. 2009. Post-fire seeding on Wyoming big sagebrush ecological sites: regression analyses of seeded non-native and native species densities. J. Environ. Manag 90:1320–1325.Google Scholar
Erdman, J. A. 1970. Pinyon–juniper succession after natural fires on residual soils of Mesa Verde, Colorado. Brigham Young Univ. Sci. Bull. Biol. Ser 11:11–24.Google Scholar
Floyd, M. L., Hanna, D., Romme, W. H., and Crews, T. E. 2006. Predicting and mitigating weed invasions to restore natural post-fire succession in Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, USA. Int. J. Wildland Fire 15 (2):247–259.Google Scholar
Freeman, J. P., Stohlgren, T. J., Hunter, M. E., Omi, P. N., Martinson, E. J., Ghong, G. W., and Brown, C. S. 2007. Rapid assessment of the postfire plant invasions in coniferous forests of the western United States. Ecol. Appl 17 (6):1656–1665.Google Scholar
Galley, K. E. M. and Wilson, T. P. eds. 2001. Proceedings of the Invasive Species Workshop: The Role of Fire in the Control and Spread of Invasive Species—Fire Conference 2000: The First National Conference on Fire Ecology, Prevention, and Management. Tallahassee, FL Tall Timbers Research Station Misc. Publication 11. 146 p.Google Scholar
[GAO] U.S. General Accounting Office 2007. Wildland Fire Management: Lack of Clear Goals or a Strategy Hinders Federal Agencies' Efforts to Contain the Costs of Fighting Fires. Publication GAO-07-655. http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d07655.pdf. Accessed: June 12, 2008.Google Scholar
Glickman, D. and Babbitt, B. 1995. Federal Wildland Fire Policy. http://www.fs.fed.us/land/wdfire.htm. Accessed: October 25, 2004.Google Scholar
Griffis, K. L., Crawford, J. A., Wagner, M. R., and Moir, W. H. 2001. Understory response to management treatments in northern Arizona ponderosa pine forests. For. Ecol. Manag 146:239–245.Google Scholar
Hosten, P. E. and West, N. E. 1994. Cheatgrass dynamics following wildfire on sagebrush semidesert site in central Utah. Pages 56–62. In Monsen, S. B. and Kitchen, S. G. eds. Proceedings of the Annual Conference on Ecology and Management of Annual Rangelands. Ogden, UT U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station Publication INT-GTR-313. [Abstract].Google Scholar
Huisinga, K. D., Laughlin, D. C., Fule, P. Z., Springer, J. D., and McGlone, C. M. 2005. Effects of an intense prescribed fire on understory vegetation in a mixed conifer forest. J. Torrey Bot. Soc 132 (4):590–601.Google Scholar
Humphrey, L. D. 1984. Patterns and mechanisms of plant succession after fire on Artemisia-grass sites in southeastern Idaho. Vegetatio 57:91–101.Google Scholar
Humphrey, R. R. 1958. The desert grassland: a history of vegetational change and an analysis of causes. Bot. Rev 24 (4):193–252.Google Scholar
Humphrey, R. R. 1974. Fire in the deserts and desert grassland of North America. Pages 365–400. In Kozlowski, T. T. ed. Fire and Ecosystems. New York Academic.Google Scholar
Humphrey, R. R. and Everson, A. C. 1951. Effect of fire on a mixed grass-shrub range in southern Arizona. J. Range Manag 4:264–266.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunter, M. E. and Omi, P. N. 2006a. Seed supply of native and cultivated grasses in pine forests of the southwestern United States and the potential for vegetation recovery following wildfire. Plant Ecol 183 (1):1–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunter, M. E. and Omi, P. N. 2006b. Response of native and exotic grasses to increased soil nitrogen and recovery in a postfire environment. Restor. Ecol 14 (4):587–594.Google Scholar
Hunter, M. E., Omi, P. N., Martinson, E. J., and Chong, G. W. 2006. Establishment of non-native plant species after wildfires: effects of fuel treatments, abiotic and biotic factors, and post-fire grass seeding treatments. Int. J. Wildland Fire 15 (2):271–281.Google Scholar
Johnson, M., Rew, L. J., Maxwell, B. D., and Sutherland, S. S. 2006. The Role of Wildfire in the Establishment and Range Expansion of Nonnative Plant Species into Natural Areas: A Review of Current Literature. Bozeman, MT Montana State University Center for Invasive Plant Management. 80 p.Google Scholar
Kalabokidis, K. D. and Omi, P. N. 1998. Reduction of fire hazard through thinning residue disposal in the urban interface. Int. J. Wildland Fire 8 (1):29–35.Google Scholar
Keeley, J. E. 2004. Ecological impacts of wheat seeding after a Sierra Nevada wildfire. Int. J. Wildland Fire 13 (1):73–78.Google Scholar
Keeley, J. E. 2006. Fire management impacts on invasive plants in the western United States. Conserv. Biol 20 (2):375–384.Google Scholar
Keeley, J. E., Lubin, D., and Fotheringham, C. J. 2003. Fire and grazing impacts on plant diversity and alien plant invasions in the southern Sierra Nevada. Ecol. Appl 13 (5):1355–1374.Google Scholar
Kemp, P. R. and Brooks, M. L. 1998. Exotic species of California deserts. Fremontia 26 (4):30–34.Google Scholar
Klinger, R., Underwood, E. C., and Moore, P. E. 2006. The role of environmental gradients in non-native plant invasion into burnt areas of Yosemite National Park, California. Divers. Distrib 12 (2):139–156.Google Scholar
Koniak, S. 1985. Succession in pinyon–juniper woodlands following wildfire in the Great Basin. Great Basin Nat 45 (3):556–566.Google Scholar
Korb, J. E., Covington, W. W., and Fule, P. Z. 2003. Sampling techniques influence understory plant trajectories after restoration: an example from ponderosa pine restoration. Restor. Ecol 11 (4):504–515.Google Scholar
Kuenzi, A. M., Fulé, P. Z., and Sieg, C. H. 2008. Effects of fire severity and pre-fire stand treatment on plant community recovery after a large wildfire. For. Ecol. Manag 255:855–865.Google Scholar
Laughlin, D. C., Bakker, J. D., Stoddard, M. T., Daniels, M. L., Springer, J. D., Gildar, C. N., Green, A. M., and Covington, W. W. 2004. Toward reference conditions: wildfire effects on flora in an old-growth ponderosa pine forest. For. Ecol. Manag 199 (1):137–152.Google Scholar
Link, S. O. 2007. Submitted manuscript topic emphasis since 2002. Nat. Areas J 27 (1):6–7.Google Scholar
Mata-González, R., Hunter, R. G., Coldren, C. L., McLendon, T., and Paschke, M. W. 2007. Modelling plant growth dynamics in sagebrush steppe communities affected by fire. J. Arid Environ 69:144–157.Google Scholar
Mason, B. 2002. Fire consumes desert landscape. New Sci 175 (2350):6.Google Scholar
McLaughlin, S. P. and Bowers, J. E. 1982. Effects of wildfire on a Sonoran Desert plant community. Ecology 63 (1):246–248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Menke, C. A. and Muir, P. S. 2004. Short-term influence of wildfire on canyon grassland plant communities and Spalding's catchfly, a threatened plant. Northwest Sci 78 (3):192–203.Google Scholar
Merriam, K. E., Keeley, J. E., and Beyers, J. L. 2006. Fuel breaks affect non-native species abundance in Californian plant communities. Ecol. Appl 16 (2):515–527.Google Scholar
Merrill, E. H., Maryland, H. F., and Peek, J. M. 1980. Effects of a fall wildfire on herbaceous vegetation on xeric sites in the Selway–Bitterroot Wilderness, Idaho. J. Range Manag 33 (5):363–367.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, J. D. and Thode, A. E. 2007. Quantifying bum severity in a heterogeneous landscape with a relative version of the delta normalized burn ratio (dNBR). Remote Sens. Environ 109 (1):66–80.Google Scholar
Neary, D. G., Klopatek, C. C., DeBano, L. F., and Ffolloitt, P. F. 1999. Fire effects on belowground sustainability: a review and synthesis. For. Ecol. Manag 122:51–71.Google Scholar
[NIFC] National Interagency Coordination Center 2006. Wildland Fire Season 2006. http://www.nifc.gov/fire_info/fire_summaries/summary_2006.htm. Accessed: July 30, 2007.Google Scholar
[NIFC] National Interagency Coordination Center 2008. Wildland Fire Summary and Statistics 2008. http://www.predictiveservices.nifc.gov/intelligence/2008_statssumm/intro_summary.pdf. Accessed: June 12, 2008.Google Scholar
O'Leary, J. F. and Minnich, R. A. 1981. Post-fire recovery of creosote bush scrub vegetation in the western Colorado Desert. Madrono 28 (2):61–66.Google Scholar
Oswald, B. P. and Covington, W. W. 1984. Effect of a prescribed fire on herbage production in southwestern ponderosa pine on sedimentary soils. For. Sci 30 (1):22–25.Google Scholar
Ott, J. E., McArthur, E. D., and Sanderson, S. S. 2000, 2001. Plant community dynamics of burned and unburned sagebrush and pinyon–juniper vegetation in West–Central Utah. Pages 177–191. In McArthur, E. D. and Fairbanks, comps, D. J. Shrubland Ecosystem Genetics and Biodiversity: Proceedings. Ogden, UT U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station RMRS-P-21. 365. p. [Abstract].Google Scholar
Pauchard, A. and Alaback, P. B. 2006. Edge type defines alien plant species invasions along Pinus contorta burned, highway and clearcut forest edges. For. Ecol. Manag 223 (1–3):327–335.Google Scholar
Pearson, H. A., Davis, J. R., and Schubert, G. H. 1972. Effects of wildfire on timber and foliage production in Arizona. J. Range. Manag 25:250–253.Google Scholar
Ratzlaff, T. D. and Anderson, J. E. 1995. Vegetal recovery following wildfire in seeded and unseeded sagebrush steppe. J. Range Manag 48 (5):386–391.Google Scholar
Rice, P. M. 2005. Fire as a Tool for Controlling Nonnative Invasive Plants. Bozeman, MT Center for Invasive Plant Management. http://www.weedcenter.org/management/burning_weeds.pdf. Accessed: June 29, 2010.Google Scholar
Ririe, W. J. 2001. Weed management and post-fire weed control during BAER planning. Bozeman, MT West. Soc. Weed Sci.: Noxious Weed Short Course. [Presentation].Google Scholar
Rogers, G. F. and Steele, J. 1980. Sonoran Desert fire ecology. Pages 15–19. In Stokes, M. A. and Dieterich, J. H., tech. coords. Proceedings of the Fire History Workshop. Fort Collins, CO U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station GTR-RM-81. 142 p. [Abstract].Google Scholar
Rogers, G. F. and Vint, M. K. 1987. Winter precipitation and fire in the Sonoran Desert. J. Arid Environ 13 (1):47–52.Google Scholar
Romme, W. H., Bohland, L., Persichetty, C., and Caruso, T. 1995. Germination ecology of some common forest herbs in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, U.S.A. Arct. Alp. Res 27 (4):407–412.Google Scholar
Ryan, K. C. and Noste, N. V. 1985. Evaluating prescribed fires. Pages 230–238. In Lotan, J. E., Kilgore, B. M., Fischer, W. C., and Mutch, R. W. eds. Proceedings–Symposium and Workshop on Wilderness Fire. Ogden, UT U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station GTR-INT-182. [Abstract].Google Scholar
Schmid, M. K. and Rogers, G. F. 1988. Trends in fire occurrence in the Arizona upland subdivision of the Sonoran Desert, 1955 to 1983. Southwest. Nat 33 (4):437–444.Google Scholar
Schoennagel, T., Waller, D. M., Turner, M. G., and Romme, W. H. 2004. The effect of fire interval on post-fire understorey communities in Yellowstone National Park. J. Veg. Sci 15 (6):797–806.Google Scholar
Shinneman, D. J. and Baker, W. L. 2009. Environmental and climatic variables as potential drivers of post-fire cover of cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) in seeded and unseeded semiarid ecosystems. Int. J. Wildland Fire 18 (2):191–202.Google Scholar
Smith, J. K., Zouhar, K., Sutherland, S., and Brooks, M. L. 2008. Fire and non-native plants—summary and conclusions. Pages 293–296. In Zouhar, K., Smith, J. K., Sutherland, S., and Brooks, M. L. Wildland Fire in Ecosystems: Fire and Non-Native Invasive Plants. Ogden, UT U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station GTR RMRS-GTR-42-vol 6. [Abstract].Google Scholar
Sparks, S. R., West, N. E., and Allen, E. B. 1990. Changes in vegetation and land use at two townships in Skull Valley, western Utah. Pages 26–36. In McArthur, E. D., Romney, E. M., Tuellar, S. D., and Paul, T. eds. Proceedings of the Symposium on Cheatgrass Invasion, Shrub Die-off, and Other Aspects of Shrub Biology and Management. Ogden, UT U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station GTR-INT-276. 351 p. [Abstract].Google Scholar
Stickney, P. F. 1980. Data Base for Post-Fire Succession, First 6–9 Years, in Montana Larch–Fir Forests. Ogden, UT U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station GTR-INT-62. 133 p.Google Scholar
Stohlgren, T. J., Bull, K. A., Otsuki, Y., Villa, C., and Lee, M. 1998. Riparian zones as havens for exotic plant species. Plant Ecol 138:113–125.Google Scholar
Stohlgren, T. J., Binkley, D., Ghong, G. W., et al. 1999. Exotic plant species invade hot spots of native plant diversity. Ecol. Monogr 69 (1):25–46.Google Scholar
Turner, M. G., Romme, W. H., Gardener, R. H., and Hargrove, W. W. 1997. Effects of fire size and pattern on early succession in Yellowstone National Park. Ecol. Monogr 67 (4):411–433.Google Scholar
Turner, M. G., Romme, W. H., and Tinker, D. B. 2003. Surprises and lessons from the 1988 Yellowstone fires. Front. Ecol. Environ 1 (7):351–358.Google Scholar
[USDA] U.S. Department of Agriculture 2004. National Strategy and Implementation Plan for Invasive Species Management. Washington, DC U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 17 p.Google Scholar
Vail, D. 1994. Symposium introduction: management of semiarid rangelands—impacts of annual weeds on resource values. Pages 3–4. In Monsen, S. B. and Kitchen, S. G. eds. Proceedings of the Annual Conference on Ecology and Management of Annual Rangelands. Ogden, UT U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station Publication INT-GTR-313. [Abstract].Google Scholar
van Mantgem, P., Schwartz, M., and Keifer, M. B. 2001. Monitoring fire effects for managed burns and wildfires: coming to terms with pseudoreplication. Nat. Areas J 21 (3):266–273.Google Scholar
Vitousek, P. M., D'Antonio, C. M., Loope, L. L., and Westbrooks, R. 1996. Biological invasions as global environmental change. Am. Sci 84:468–478.Google Scholar
West, N. E. and Hassan, M. A. 1985. Recovery of sagebrush–grass vegetation following wildfire. J. Range Manag 38 (2):131–134.Google Scholar
West, N. E. and Yorks, T. P. 2002. Vegetation responses following wildfire on grazed and ungrazed sagebrush semi-desert. J. Range Manag 55 (2):171–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whisenant, S. G. 1990. Changing fire frequencies on Idaho's Snake River Plains: ecological and management implications. Pages. 4–10. in. Proceedings of the Symposium on Cheatgrass Invasion, Shrub Die-off, and Other Aspects of Shrub Biology and Management. Ogden, UT U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station GTR-INT-276. 351 p. [Abstract].Google Scholar
White, L. D. 1969. Effects of a wildfire on several desert grassland shrub species. J. Range Manag 22:284–285.Google Scholar
Whitlock, C. and Millspaugh, S. H. 2001. A paleoecologic perspective on past plant invasions in Yellowstone. West. N. Am. Nat 61 (3):316–327.Google Scholar
Wolfson, B. A. S., Kolb, T. E., Sieg, C. H., and Clancy, K. M. 2005. Effects of post-fire conditions on germination and seedling success of diffuse knapweed in northern Arizona. For. Ecol. Manag 216 (1–3):342–358.Google Scholar
Wright, H. A. and Bailey, A. W. 1982. Fire Ecology, United States and Southern Canada. New York Wiley. 501 p.Google Scholar
Young, J. A., Evans, R. A., and Major, J. 1972. Alien plants in the Great Basin. J. Range Manag 25:194–201.Google Scholar
Zedler, P. H., Gautier, C. R., and McMaster, G. S. 1983. Vegetation change in response to extreme events: the effect of a short interval between fires in California chaparral and coastal scrub. Ecology 64 (4):809–818.Google Scholar
Zouhar, K., Smith, J. K., Sutherland, S., and Brooks, M. L. 2008a. Wildland Fire in Ecosystems: Fire and Non-Native Invasive Plants. Ogden, UT U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station GTR RMRS-GTR-42-vol 6.Google Scholar
Zouhar, K., Munger, G. T., and Smith, J. K. 2008b. Gaps in scientific knowledge about fire and non-native invasive plants. Pages 243–259. In Zouhar, K., Smith, J. K., Sutherland, S., and Brooks, M. L. eds. Wildland Fire in Ecosystems: Fire and Non-Native Invasive Plants. Ogden, UT U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station GTR RMRS-GTR-42-vol 6.Google Scholar
Zouhar, K., Smith, J. K., and Sutherland, S. 2008c. Effects of fire on non-native plants and invisibility of wildland ecosystems. Pages 7–31. In Zouhar, K., Smith, J. K., Sutherland, S., and Brooks, M. L. Wildland Fire in Ecosystems: Fire and Non-Native Invasive Plants. Ogden, UT U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station GTR RMRS-GTR-42-vol 6.Google Scholar