1 Michael Kenny, S. J. Catholic Culture in Alabama: Centenary Story of Spring Hill College, 1830–1930 (New York: America Press, 1931).Google Scholar

2 Kluger, Richard Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's Struggle for Equality (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1976).Google Scholar

3 Clark, E. Culpepper The Schoolhouse Door: Segregation's Last Stand at the University of Alabama (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 54; Adam Fairclough, Race and Democracy: The Civil Rights Struggle in Louisiana 1915–1972 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1995), 154–155. Dan Carter, The Politics of Rage: George Wallace, the Origins of the New Conservatism, and the Transformation of American Politics (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2000), 131–132.Google Scholar

4 Duren, Almetris Overcoming: A History of Black Integration at the University of Texas at Austin (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979), 1–3; Also Kruger, Simple Justice, 260–266, 282.Google Scholar

5 Cross, George Blacks in White Colleges: Oklahoma's Landmark Cases (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1975), 48–56, 93–96; also Kruger, Simple Justice, 266–269.Google Scholar

6 Clark, Schoolhouse Door, 54–80; Carter, Politics of Rage, 83–84.Google Scholar

7 Conkin, Paul Gone With the Ivy: A Biography of Vanderbilt University (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1985), 539–561; David Halberstam, The Children (New York: Random House, 1998), 36–47, 124–125, 194–207.Google Scholar

8 Sansing, David Making Haste Slowly: The Troubled History of Higher Education in Mississippi (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1990), 148; Nadine Cohodas, The Band Played Dixie: Race and the Liberal Conscience at Ole Miss (New York: The Free Press, 1997), 57–110.Google Scholar

9 Dyer, Thomas The University of Georgia: A Bicentennial History, 1185–1985 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1985), 303–334; Calvin Trillin, An Education in Georgia: Charlayne Hunter, Hamilton Holmes, and the Integration of the University of Georgia (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1991).Google Scholar

10 Meredith, James Three Years in Mississippi (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1966); Charlayne Hunter-Gault, In My Place (New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1992).Google Scholar

11 Cross, Blacks in White Colleges, 94–95.Google Scholar

12 Clark, Schoolhouse Door, 54–59, 79–80.Google Scholar

13 Klarman, Michael “How Brown Changed Race Relations: The Backlash Thesis,“ Journal of American History 81 (June, 1994): 81–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

14 Pratt, Robert The Color of Their Skin: Education and Race in Richmond, Virginia, 1954–1989 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1992), 24–28.Google Scholar

15 Hunter-Gauh, Hunter-Gault, In My Place, 194–195.Google Scholar

16 Meredith, Three Years in Mississippi, 207–214.Google Scholar

17 Clark, Schoolhouse Door, 213–237; Carter, Politics of Rage, 142–151.Google Scholar

18 Morisey, A. A. “A New Trend in Private Colleges,“ New South, 6 (August-Sept., 1951): 1–3.Google Scholar

19 Kluger, Simple Justice, 202 213.Google Scholar

20 See the college's website at http://www.wbu.edu Click links to “History” and “Dates.”Google Scholar

21 Fairclough, Race and Democracy, 155.Google Scholar

22 Johnson, Guy “A Sociologist Looks at Racial Desegregation in the South,“ Social Forces 33 (October, 1954), 3, 6.Google Scholar

23 Johnson, Guy “Racial Integration in Southern Higher Education,“ Social Forces 34 (1956), 310.Google Scholar

24 Johnson, “Racial Integration,“ 312.Google Scholar

25 Stanfield, John “Methodological Reflections: An Introduction,“ in John Stanfield and Rutledge Dennis (eds.), Race and Ethnicity in Research Methods (Newbury Park, California: Sage Publications, 1993), 7.Google Scholar

26 Thomason, Michael and McLaurin, Melton, Mobile: American River City (Mobile, Alabama: Easter Publishing Company, 1975), 123.Google Scholar

27 McLaurin, Melton and Thomason, Michael, Mobile: The Life and Times of a Great Southern City (Woodland Hills, California: Windsor Publications, Inc., 1981), 124.Google Scholar

28 Bartley, Numan The New South, 1945–1980 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1995), 10.Google Scholar

29 Thomason, McLaurin and Mobile, 128.Google Scholar

30 Ibid., 124, 126–127.Google Scholar

31 Autrey, Dorothy “The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People in Alabama, 1913–1952“ (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Notre Dame, 1985), 222.Google Scholar

32 Goldfield, David R. Black, White, and Southern: Race Relations and Southern Culture, 1940 to the Present (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1990), 35–36; Autrey, “National Association,” 224.Google Scholar

33 Thomason, McLaurin and Mobile, 129.Google Scholar

34 Bartley, New South, 8; Goldfield, Black, White, and Southern, 36.Google Scholar

35 Kluger, Simple Justice, 398.Google Scholar

36 Egerton, John Speak Now Against the Day: The Generation Before the Civil Rights Movement in the South (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1994), 211; Bartley, The New South, 8.Google Scholar

37 Autrey, “National Association,“ 231.Google Scholar

38 Southern, David Gunnar Myrdal and Black-White Relations: The Use and Abuse of An American Dilemma, 1944–1969 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987), 52; Fairclough, Race and Democracy 109; Bartley, The New South, 12; and Goldfield, Black, White, and Southern, 36.Google Scholar

39 Thomason, McLaurin and Mobile, 137.Google Scholar

40 Pickett, Rhoda “Joe Langan: Firm Voice for Racial Harmony,“ in The Mobile Register, 4 April, 1996, B-3.Google Scholar

41 Dow, Patsy B. “Joseph N Langan: Mobile's Racial Diplomat“ (Master's thesis, University of South Alabama, 1993), 8–9; Roy Hoffman, “Pushing the Limits: Joe Langan's Mobile,” The Mobile Register, 15 September, 1997, A-4.Google Scholar

42 Cyprian Davis, O. S. B. The History of Black Catholics in the United States (New York: Crossroads, 1990), 253–254.Google Scholar

43 Albert Foley, S. J. “The Negro and Catholic Higher Education,“ Interracial Review (October, 1957), 169; a condensed version of the same article appeared first in Crisis 64 (August-September, 1957), 414.Google Scholar

44 Davis, Black Catholics, 219; David Southern, John LaFarge and the Limits of Catholic Interracialism 1911–1963 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1996), 178.Google Scholar

45 Southern, John LaFarge, 126–127; Davis, Black Catholics, 221–225; also see chapters on Markoe and Theobald in William Faherty, S. J., Rebels or Reformers? Dissenting Priests in American Life (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1987).Google Scholar

46 Claude Heithaus, S. J. cited by Peter McDonough, Men Astutely Trained: A History of the Jesuits in the American Century (New York: Free Press, 1992), 182; See also William B. Faherty, S. J., “Breaking the Color Barrier,” Universitas (the magazine of St. Louis University) 13 (October, 1987), 20.Google Scholar

47 McDonough, Men Astutely Trained, 191; Southern, John LaFarge, 261–265.Google Scholar

48 John McCarthy, S.J. “Facing the Race Problem at St. Louis University“ Jesuit Educational Quarterly 14 (October 1951):69–80, here 70; Foley, Interracial Review, 170.Google Scholar

49 McDonough, Men Astutely Trained, 35–40, 168–181.Google Scholar

50 Albert Foley, S. J. “Shadow of the White Camellia: Reminiscences of a Tangle with Terrorists (unpublished memoirs),“ 40 Spring Hill College [hereafter SHC] Archives, Mobile, Alabama.Google Scholar

51 Ibid.Google Scholar

52 Albert Foley, S. J. “In the Shadow of the White Camellias“ (unfinished memoirs), SHC Archives, 128–131; Foley, “Reminiscences,” 40. Note: Foley wrote two memoirs with similar titles.Google Scholar

53 Foley, “White Camellias,“ Chapter 3, “Six Prelates,” 51st page in chapter.Google Scholar

54 Patrick Donnelly, S. J. “World Citizenship and the Unfinished Business of Democracy“ (commencement address, 1948), SHC Archives, 7.Google Scholar

55 Board of Consul tors minutes, 3 May, 1949, SHC Archives.Google Scholar

56 Zietz, Robert interview by author, tape recording, Mobile, Alabama, 14 February, 1998. Google Scholar

57 Lipscomb, Oscar P. Archbishop of Mobile, interview by author, tape recording, Mobile, Alabama, 3 July, 1998. Google Scholar

58 Consultors’ minutes, 1 March, 1952.Google Scholar

59 Ibid., 1 March and 6 July, 1952.Google Scholar

60 Tbe Springhillian (college newspaper), 28 March, 1952, SHC archives.Google Scholar

61 Walter Furman, S. J. interview by author, tape recording, Mobile, Alabama, 25 March, 1998. Google Scholar

62 Livingston, W. O. interview by author, tape recording, Mobile, Alabama, 24 March, 1998. Google Scholar

63 Livingston interview.Google Scholar

64 Fairclough, Race and Democracy, 174.Google Scholar

65 Francis, Norman currently president of Xavier University, New Orleans, was one of the pair. See also Louis J. Twomey, S. J., New Orleans, to W. P. Donnelly, S. J., New Orleans, 1 June, 1952, Louis J. Twomey Papers, box 19, folder 10, Loyola University Library, New Orleans. Twomey wrote, “When our own students and others ask me ‘Why doesn't Loyola admit Negroes?’ I fumble around and try to ‘save face’ for Loyola as best I can.” In the same folder, see also Twomey's correspondence with Richard Gumble, Jr., who declined to enroll at Loyola.Google Scholar

66 Andrew Smith, S. J. Spring Hill, to Louis Twomey, S. J. New Orleans, 8 January, 1952, Louis J. Twomey Papers, box 19, folder 9, Loyola University Library, New Orleans.Google Scholar

67 Consultors’ minutes, 10 September, 1952.Google Scholar

68 Ibid., 11 September, 1952.Google Scholar

69 Consultors’ minutes, 21 December, 1952.Google Scholar

70 Ibid., 3 February, 1953.Google Scholar

71 Livingston interview.Google Scholar

72 Consultors’ minutes, 16 March, 1953.Google Scholar

73 Albert Foley, S. J. Spring Hill, to John LaFarge, S. J., New York, 12 April, 1954, Jesuit Province Archives, Loyola University Library, New Orleans.Google Scholar

74 Consultors’ minutes, 7 May, 1954.Google Scholar

75 Bergen, George interview by author, tape recording, Miami, Florida, 9 October, 1998. Google Scholar

76 “Segregation on Way Out, NAACP Official Asserts,” The Mobile Press, 17 May, 1954, A10.Google Scholar

77 “Hill President Praises Ruling on Segregation,” The Mobile Press, 25 May, 1954, A1, A4.Google Scholar

78 Ibid., 1.Google Scholar

79 Crandell, A. W. S. J., Christ's Blueprint for the South (Institute for Social Order bulletin, New Orleans Province, 30 September, 1954), Jesuit Province Papers, Loyola University Library, New Orleans.Google Scholar

80 Sadlier, Claus interview by author, tape recording, New Orleans, Louisiana, 11 March, 1999; Also Thomas Cronin, S. J., interview by author, tape recording, Convent, Louisiana, 9 March, 2000.Google Scholar

81 Consultors’ minutes, 6 June, 1954.Google Scholar

82 “Colored Students Admitted by Hill,” The Mobile Register, 18 September, 1954, Al.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

83 Smith, Lillian Killers of the Dream (New York: W.W. Norton, 1949), 184.Google Scholar

84 “Spring Hill Goes Coeducational,” The Mobile Press, 19 March, 1952, A6.Google Scholar

85 Albert Foley, S. J. related the following apocryphal anecdote: “The registrar had a call from the office of the University of Alabama not long ago, asking whether a certain student who had graduated here in 1947 was white or Negro. The Alabama registrar said that he was now trying to get into the University as a Negro. He wanted to know if he had “posed” as a white while going through here, and if he had, he said that they were going to file charges of fraud against him if he had. Our registrar gave them no comfort. He simply told them that we had not had the designation for “race” on the registration card, and had not raised the question with the youngster at the time.” “Stages in the Desegregation Process at Spring Hill College,” (unpublished report, 1955), SHC Archives.Google Scholar

86 McDonough, Men Astutely Trained, 182–183.Google Scholar

87 Egerton, Speak Now Against the Day, 10–11.Google Scholar

88 King, Martin Luther Jr., Letter from the Birmingham Jail (Philadelphia: American Friends Service Committee, 1963), 24–25.Google Scholar

89 Andrew Smith, S. J. quoted in “Hill President Praises Ruling on Segregation,” The Mobile Press, 25 May, 1954, A1.Google Scholar