Published online by Cambridge University Press: 25 March 2010
This article examines the role which education played in church/state relations during the Occupation. It begins with an evaluation of catholic reactions to the defeat and explains why so many church leaders were quick to blame military collapse on the laïcité of the republican educational system. It then investigates the policies which the church wanted to see pursued in regard to schools and assesses how these were received by the Vichy government. Analysis of these issues reveals that Vichy was not as pro-clerical as is sometimes believed. Although initially sympathetic to church requests, by 1942 the regime had become reluctant to introduce any measure that might provoke religious division. At the same time, the article illustrates that French Catholicism was not a monolithic bloc. Arguments over education served only to intensify divisions already present within the church and soon led to catholic disenchantment with the Vichy regime.
1 In particular, see Austin, R., ‘The chanticrs de la jeunesae in Languedoc, 1940–1944’, French Historical Studies, XIII, 1 (1983), 106–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Halls, W. D.The youth of Vichy France (Oxford, 1981)Google Scholar.
2 Austin, R., ‘Political surveillance and ideological control in Vichy France: a study of teachers in the Midi, 1940–1944’, in Kedward, R. and Austin, R. (eds.), Vichy France and the resistance. Culture and ideology (London, 1985), p. 13.Google Scholar
3 Ibid.
4 See , Halls, The youth of Vichy France, p. 61Google Scholar.
5 See Deroo, A., L'Episcopal français dans la mélée de son temps, 1330–1354 (Paris, 1955)Google Scholar and Mgr Guerry, L'glise en France sous l'occupation (Paris, 1947).
6 See Cogniot, G., ‘Les subventions à 1'enseignement confessionnel’, in La Pensée, new series, III (1945)Google Scholar ; Cottereau, J., ‘L'Eglise, a-t-elle collaboré?’, in Problémes Actuels, LXV (1946)Google Scholar ; and Cottereau, J., L'Eglise et Pétain (Paris, 1947)Google Scholar.
7 Duquesne, J., Les catholiques français sous l'occupation (Paris, 1966).Google Scholar
8 Eglises et chrétiens dans la IIe guerre mondiale. La région Rhóne–Alpes. Actes du colloque tenu á Grenoble du 7 au 9 octobre 1976 publiés sous la direction de Xavier de Montclos (Lyon, 1978)Google Scholar ; ‘Eglises et chrétiens pendant la seconde guerre mondiale dans le Nord-Pas-de-Calais’, in Revue du Nord, nos. CCXXXVII–CCXXVIII (1978)Google Scholar; and Eglises tt chrétiens dans la IIe guerre mondiale. La France. Actes du colloque national tenu à Lyon du 27 au 30 Janvier 1978 publiés sous la direction de Xavier de Montclos (Lyon, 1982)Google Scholar.
9 Villerabel, Mgr quoted in La S[emaine] R[eligituse] dt l' Archdiocèse d'Aix, 15 Sept. 1940, no. 37, P. 37.Google Scholar
10 Caillot, Mgr quoted in J. Godel, ‘Monseigneur Caillot, evèque de Grenoble (1917–1957) et le régime de Vichy (1940–1944)’, in Eglists et chrétiens dans la IIe guerre mondiale. La région Rhóne Alpes, p. 78.Google Scholar
11 Couderc, Mgr quoted in SR dt Viviers, 28 02 1941, no. 9, p. 78.Google Scholar
12 Rastouil, Mgr quoted in SR dt Limoges, 30 08 1940, no. 35, p. 387.Google Scholar
13 Saliège, Mgr quoted in La Croix, 13 07 1940.Google Scholar
14 La Remit Religieusw de Rodez, 6 09 1940, no. 36, p. 348.Google Scholar
15 Mgr Durieux quoted in Bédarida, R., Les armes de l'esprit. Témoignage chrétien 1941–1944 (Paris, 1977), p. 15.Google Scholar
16 Aimond, Canon quoted in La Croix, 18 09 1940.Google Scholar
17 Halls, B., ‘Catholicism under Vichy’, in , Kedward and , Austin (eds.), Vichy France and the resistance, p. 134.Google Scholar
18 Ibid.
19 Verdier, Cardinal, La question scolaire (Paris, 1934).Google Scholar
20 This memorandum is cited in Cointet, J. P., ‘L'Eglise catholique et le gouvernement deGoogle Scholar Vichy’, in Eglises et ckrétiens dans la IIe guerre modiale. La France, p. 437.
21 See Pucheu, P., Ma vie (Paris, 1948), p. 289Google Scholar.
22 Marrus, M. and Paxton, R. O., Vicky France and the Jews (New York, 1981), pp. 199–200.Google Scholar
23 Cardinal Gerlier quoted in Y.-M. Hilaire, ‘L'été 1940: L'effondrement et le sauveur’, in Eglises et chrétiens dans la IIe guerre mondiale. La France, p. 81.
24 Ibid. p. 90.
25 , Pucheu, Ma vie, p. 289Google Scholar and Rémond, R., Les catholiques, le communisms et les crises, 1929–1939 (Paris, 1960), p. 227Google Scholar.
26 Talbott, J. E., The politics of educational reform in France, 1918–1940 (Princeton, 1969), pp. 194–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
27 Cardinal Lienart quoted in Mayeur, J.-M., ‘Les evèques de l'avant-guerre’, in Eglises et chrétiens dans la IIe guerre mondiale. La France, p. 15.Google Scholar
28 See Grente, Mgr, Le Cardinal Baudrillart (Paris, 1949)Google Scholar.
29 For Baudrillart's role during the occupation, see Marchasson, Y., ‘Autour du cardinal Baudrillart’, in Eglises et chrétiens dans la IIe guerre mondiale. La France, pp. 227–36Google Scholar.
30 Baudrillart, A., Le testiment d'un prince de l'eglise. Texte de la déclaration faite à l'agence inter-France le 12 novembre 1940 (Paris, 1942).Google Scholar
31 , Duquesne, Les catholiques français, p. 38Google Scholar.
32 , Halls, The youth of Vichy France, p. 68Google Scholar ; and Werth, A., France 1940–1955 (London, 1959), p. 59Google Scholar.
33 Labarthète, H. du Moulin de, Le temps des illusions. Souvenirs juillet 1940-avril 1942 (Genève, 1946), p. 95.Google Scholar
34 , Duquesne, Les catholiques français, p. 18.Google Scholar
35 Pétain, Marshal, ‘L'education nationale’, in La Revue des Deux Mondes, 15 08 1940.Google Scholar
36 See Weygand, General, Comment élever nos fils? (Paris, 1937)Google Scholar.
37 General Weygand quoted in , Duquesne, Les cathoiiques français, p. 27Google Scholar.
38 Baudouin, P., Neuf mois au gouvernement. Avril–décembre 1940 (Paris, 1948), p. 253.Google Scholar
39 Ibid.
40 Labarthète, Du Moulin de, Le temps des illusions, p. 299.Google Scholar
41 For details of these three ministers and their reforms, see , Halls, The youth of Vichy France, pp. 16–20Google Scholar.
42 See Barnett, S., ‘From patriots to pacifists: the French primary school teachers, 1880–1940’, Journal of Contemporary History, XII (1977), 413–34Google Scholar.
43 For catholic attitudes to the teachers, see Atkin, N., ‘Church and teachers in Vichy France, 1940–44’, in French History, IV (1990), 1–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
44 La Croix, 15/1609 1940Google Scholar , provides a biographical sketch of Chevalier.
45 Zay, J., Souvenirs et solitude (Paris, 1944), p. 34Google Scholar.
46 Chevalier, J.France. Pétain m'a dit…Les précepies du maréchal. Appel aux jeunes (Paris, 1941).Google Scholar
47 La Croix, 8 09 1940.Google Scholar
48 La Croix, 15/1609 1940.Google Scholar
49 Piguet, Mgr quoted in SR de Clermont, 8 02 1941, no. 6, p. 71Google Scholar.
50 Labarthète, Du Moulin de, Le temps des illusions, p. 301.Google Scholar
51 For the history of the devoirs envoirs Dieu, see , Halls, The youth of Vicky France, pp. 69–72Google Scholar.
52 According to Chevalier's new legislation, the catechism was still to be taught off school Premises. Yet in ‘circonstances exceptionnelles’, with the agreement of both the academy inspector and the local mayor, religious instruction could be given in the school itself. Writing after the war, Chevalier claimed that by ‘circonstances exceptionnelles’ he was thinking of those communes in mountainous regions where the journey between church and school was hazardous. See Chevalier, J-, ‘Un témoignage direct sur deux points d'histoire’, in Ecrits de Paris, 07 1953, P. 85.Google Scholar
53 Pariser Zeitung, 30 01 1941.Google Scholar
54 Les nouveaux temps, 13/1402 1941Google Scholar , cited in Cointet-Labrousse, M., ‘La potitique scolatre duGoogle Scholar gouvernement de Vichy’, in Eglises et ckrétiens dans la IIe guerre mondiale. La France, p. 177.
55 See ‘Dieu à l'ecole’, in Esprit, 02 1941Google Scholar , no. 97; Mar. 1941, no. 98; and Apr. 1941, no. 99.
56 Labarthète, Du Moulin de, Le temps des illusions, p. 302.Google Scholar
57 At the liberation Chevalier was tried for having supported the pro-German Milice and was sentenced to twenty years hard labour. See Novick, P., The resistance versus Vicky. The purge of collaborators in liberated France (London, 1968), p. 222Google Scholar.
58 La Gerbe, 7 Aug. 1941. Also see Dodier, H., A la recherche de la paix scholaire. Quelques souvenirs sur son éminence le Cardinal Suhard, 1940–1949 (Laval, 1953), pp. 30–4Google Scholar.
59 , Dodier, A la recherche de la paix scoLrire, p. 33.Google Scholar
60 Ibid. p. 26.
61 Carcopino also laid down two other conditions on his appointment: that he could maintain the traditional liberties of the university and that he could return to his post as director of the Ecole Normale Supeneure when his term of office was over. See Carcopino, J., Souvenirs de sept ans, 1937–1944 (Paris, 1953), p. 271Google Scholar.
62 Although Carcopino made the catechism a voluntary subject, he was anxious to appease church opinion. Thus he allowed religious instruction to remain part of the school timetable. See , Halls, The youth of Vicky France, pp. 73–4Google Scholar.
63 , Dodier, A la recherche de la paix scolaire, pp. 28–9.Google Scholar
64 For a commentary on these reforms, see , Halls, The youth of Vichy France, pp. 26–31Google Scholar and Paxton, R. O., Vichy France. Old guard and new order, 1940–1944 (New York, 1972), pp. 159–60Google Scholar.
65 Church leaders had been involved in negotiations for state subsidies since the start of the war. Not surprisingly, they used the traditional argument that catholic parents deserved help because they paid twice over for their children's education: once, through fees to the école libre and, secondly, through taxation to the école publiaue. The hierarchy also added that the austerity of wartime was threatening a huge financial crisis in catholic education which might lead to the closure of several of its schools. It was this latter argument which held more sway with Carcopino. See , Carcopino, Souvenirs de sept ans, p. 320Google Scholar.
66 Declaration of 15 January 1941 cited in , Duquesne, Les catholiques Français, p. 50Google Scholar.
67 Declaration of 24 July 1941 cited in La vie catholique. Documents et acles de la hiérarckie catholique. Années 1940–1941 (Paris, 1942). P. 65Google Scholar.
68 A[rchives] N[ationales] F17 13365, Note of 24 Sept. 1941.
69 AN F17 13365, Letter of Bonnard to Liénart, 11 Nov. 1942.
70 AN F17 13365, Letter of Beaussart to the ministry of education, 11 Nov. 1942.
71 AN F17 13365, Letter of Liénart to Beaussart, 2 Dec. 1942.
72 AN F17 13365, Letter of Beaussart to Liénart, 7 Dec. 1942.
73 AN F17 13365, Letter of Suhard to Bonnard, 23 Jan. 1943.
74 At the liberation, Carcopino was tried as an ex-minister of the Vichy government. Because he had assisted the resistance, the charges were dropped. See , Halls, The youth of Vicky France, p. 33Google Scholar.
75 For an introduction to the career of Bonnard, see Mièvre, J. ‘L'Evolution politique d'Abel Bonnard’, La Revue d'Histoire de la Deuxième Guerre Mondiale, CVIII, (1977), pp. 1–26Google Scholar.
76 , Zay, Souvenirs et solitude, p. 259.Google Scholar
77 Jardin, P., Vicky boyhood. An insider's view 0f the Pétein regime (London, 1975), p. 58.Google Scholar
78 These letters may be found in AN F17 13342.
79 La France Socialiste, 29 Apr. 1942.
80 AN F17 13390, ‘Voeux exprimés par Mgr Aubry à M. le Minstre de 1'Education Nationale au cours dc son audience du 31 man 1943’ (Report dated 1 Apr. 1943).
81 AN F17 13365. Leer of Bonnard to Pierre Cathala, minister of finance, 11 May 1943, comments on Liénart's request.
82 For the role of the religious orders during the occupation, see Atkin, N., Church and schools in Vichy France, 1940–44 (New York, 1992 forthcoming)Google Scholar.
83 Declaration of December 1942 cited in , Duquesne, Les catholiques français, pp. 275–6Google Scholar.
84 Excerpts from these concordats may be found in Faure, P., L'Ecole et la cité (Paris, 1945), pp. 337–8Google Scholar.
85 Boegner, M., L'Exigence occumémique. Souvenirs et perspectives (Paris, 1968), p. 134.Google Scholar
86 Delpech, F., ‘Le projet de concordat de l'été 1940’, in Eglises et ckrétiens dans la IIe guerre mondiale. La France, pp. 185–8.Google Scholar
87 Ibid. p. 187.
88 AN 2 AG 492 CC72 A, Sauret, Pierre, ‘Mémoire à consulter pour une poUtique religieuse de l'état’, 20 10 1940Google Scholar.
89 Delpech, F., ‘Le projet de concordat de I'été 1940’, in Eglises et chrétiens dans la IIe guerre mondiale. La France, p. 187.Google Scholar
90 AN 2 AG 543 CC142 Troisième dossier, ‘Résumé d'une dépeche de M. Léon Bérard, Ambaasadeur de France près de Saint-Siège en date de 8 juin 1942’. Also see Halls, W. D., ‘Church and state: Prelates, theologians and the Vichy regime’, in Tallett, F. & Atkin, N. (eds.), Religion, socity and politics in France since 1789 (London, 1991, pp. 167Google Scholar -86). Bérard himself was enthusiastic about the possibility of a concordat.
91 AN 2 AG 492 CC72 A, note of 22 Jan. 1943.
92 AN 2 AG 492 CC72 A, note of 3 Feb. 1943.
93 AN 2 AG 492 CC72 A, note of 22 Jan. 1943 comments on the papacy's sympathy for Pétain.
94 Mgr Valerio Valeri quoted in , Duquesne, Les catholiques Français, p. 104Google Scholar.
95 AN 2 AG 609 CM25 B, ‘Statut de l'cnseignement libre’, Aug. 1943. A note attached refers to the scheme of November 1942.
96 AN 2 AG 609 CM25 B, Letter of Mgr Aubry to Pétain's cabinet, 21 Oct. 1943.
97 AN 2 AG 609 CM25 B, ‘Statut du personnel de l'enseignement libre’, 9 Feb. 1944.
98 Following the allied invasion of France, Bonnard left with other members of the Vichy government for the castle of Sigmaringen. From there he made a journey to Spain where he settled in exile. Meanwhile, in Paris he was condemned to death in abstia. In 1960, he returned to France where he received a nominal sentence of ten years banishment dating from 1945. This, of course, meant his immediate release. See , Halls, The youth of Vicky France, p. 61Google Scholar.
99 Latreille, A., De Gaulle, la libération et l'eglise catkolique (Paris, 1978), p. 99.Google Scholar
100 , Duquesne, Les catholiques Français, p. 453.Google Scholar
101 Ibid. p. 545.
102 The commission's report may be found in AN 71 AJ 66.
103 See Duquesne, Les catholiques Français, passim.