¹ Jones, G. Stedman, Languages of class: studies in English working class history, 1832–1982 (Cambridge, 1993)Google Scholar; Vernon, J., ‘Who's afraid of the ‘linguistic turn?’ The politics of social history and its discontents’, Social History, 19 (1994), pp. 81–97Google Scholar; Stafford, W., ‘Shall we take the linguistic turn? British radicalism in the era of the French Revolution’, Historical Journal, 43 (2000), pp. 583–94Google Scholar; Clark, E. A., History, theory, text: historians and the linguistic turn (Cambridge, MA, 2004)Google Scholar. But see also Navickas, K., ‘What happened to class? New histories of labour and collective action in Britain’, Social History, 36 (2011), pp. 192–204Google Scholar.

² Withington, P., Society in early modern England: the vernacular origins of some powerful ideas (Cambridge, 2010)Google Scholar.

³ Lee, S. M., George Canning and liberal Toryism, 1801–1827 (Woodbridge, 2008), p. 10Google Scholar.

⁴ Clark, J. C. D., ‘Religion and the origins of radicalism in nineteenth-century Britain’, and Condren, C., ‘Afterword: radicalism revisited’, both in Burgess, G. and Festenstein, M., eds., English radicalism, 1550–1850 (Cambridge, 2007)Google Scholar.

⁵ Burgess, G., ‘Radicalism and the English Revolution’, in Burgess, and Festenstein, , eds., English radicalism, pp. 62–86Google Scholar, at p. 66.

⁶ Hessayon, A. and Finnegan, D., eds., Varieties of seventeenth- and early eighteenth-century English radicalism in context (Farnham, 2011), pp. 1–2, 25Google Scholar.

⁷ See Skinner, Q., Visions of politics (3 vols., Cambridge, 2002)Google Scholar, i; Withington, Society in early modern England, p. 6.

⁸ See Philp, M., ‘English republicanism in the 1790s’, Journal of Political Philosophy, 6 (1998), pp. 235–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹ Scott, J. W., ‘On language, gender and working-class history’, International Labour and Working-Class History, 31 (1987), pp. 1–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at p. 6. See also Vernon, J., Politics and the people: a study of English political culture, c. 1815–1867 (Cambridge, 1993)Google Scholar; Epstein, J., Radical expression: political language, ritual, and symbol in England, 1790–1850 (Oxford, 1994)Google Scholar.

¹⁰ Wahrman, D., Imagining the middle class: the political representation of class in Britian, c. 1780–1840 (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 8–12, 107Google Scholar. See also Philp, M., ‘Disconcerting ideas: explaining popular radicalism and popular loyalism in the 1790s’, in Burgess, and Festenstein, , eds., English radicalism, pp. 157–89Google Scholar, at pp. 161–2.

¹¹ For details see weblearn.ox.ac.uk/site/users/innes/public/democracy.

¹² In the contemporary writings referred to here most authors appear to have referred interchangeably to either ‘England’ or ‘Britain’. In the discussion here, reference is made chiefly to England (unless following contemporary quotations).

¹³ For a lengthy discussion of use of keywords see Q. Skinner, ‘The idea of a cultural lexicon’, in Visions of politics, i, pp. 158–74.

¹⁴ For example, Beckett, J. V., The aristocracy in England, 1660–1914 (Oxford, 1986)Google Scholar; Langford, P., A polite and commercial people: England, 1727–1783 (Oxford, 1989)Google Scholar; Thompson, E. P., Customs in common (London, 1991)Google Scholar; Tague, I. H., Women of quality: accepting and contesting ideals of femininity in England, 1690–1760 (Woodbridge, 2002)Google Scholar.

¹⁵ Davidoff, L. and Hall, C., Family fortunes: men and women of the English middle class, 1780–1850 (London, 1987, 2002), pp. 20–1Google Scholar.

¹⁶ Clark, J. C. D., English society, 1688–1832 (Cambridge, 1985), pp. 7, 93–118Google Scholar. See also Mandler, P., Aristocratic government in the age of reform whigs and liberals, 1830–1852 (Oxford, 1990), p. 2Google Scholar.

¹⁷ See, for example, Deutsch, P., ‘Moral trespass in Georgian England: gaming, gender and electoral politics in the age of George III’, Historical Journal, 39 (1996), pp. 637–56Google Scholar.

¹⁸ Pocock, J. G. A., ‘Radical criticisms of the whig order in the age between revolutions’, in Jacob, M. and Jacob, J., eds., The origins of Anglo-American radicalism (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, and London, 1984), p. 48Google Scholar.

¹⁹ See, for example, Wasson, E. A., ‘The crisis of the aristocracy: parliamentary reform, the peerage and the House of Commons, 1750–1914’, Parliamentary History, 13 (1994), pp. 297–311Google Scholar.

²⁰ Ibid., pp. 300–1.

²¹ See Goodrich, A., Debating England's aristocracy in the 1790s: pamphlets, polemics and political ideas (Woodbridge, 2005)Google Scholar, esp. ch. 1. On usage of ‘class’, see Corfield, P. J., ‘Class by name and number in eighteenth-century Britain’, in Corfield, , ed., Language, history and class (Oxford, 1991)Google Scholar; Joyce, Patrick, ed., Class (Oxford, 1995)Google Scholar.

²² Doyle, W., Aristocracy and its enemies in the age of revolution (Oxford, 2009), pp. 39–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²³ Ibid., ch. 2; Clark, English society, pp. 93–118. For new peerage creations, see Cannon, J., Aristocratic century; the peerage of eighteenth-century England (Cambridge, 1984), ch. 1Google Scholar.

²⁴ Langford, Polite and commercial people, p. 565; Clark, English society, pp. 98, 102.

²⁵ Cannon, Aristocratic century, p. 10; Corfield, P. J., ‘The rivals: landed and other gentleman’, in Harte, N. and Quinault, R., eds., Land and society in Britain, 1700–1914 (Manchester, 1996), p. 4Google Scholar.

²⁶ See, for example, Ridpath, George, Parliamentary right maintain'd or the Hanover succession justify'd (London, 1714), p. 194Google Scholar.

²⁷ See, A collection of state tracts, published on occasion of the late revolution in 1688 … (3 vols., London, 1705–7), I, p. 591.

²⁸ Tague, Women of quality, pp. 4, 12–13; H. Greig, ‘The beau monde: fashionable society in Georgian London (Oxford, forthcoming), and also Greig, , ‘Leading the fashion: the material culture of London's Beau Monde’, in Styles, J. and Vickery, A., eds., Gender, taste and material culture in Britain and North America, 1700–1830 (New Haven, CT, 2006), pp. 293–313Google Scholar.

²⁹ A quick search of the ESTC catalogue reveals that most references in text titles are literary.

³⁰ Anon., Remains of Sir Walter Raleigh: maxims of state (London, 1702), pp. 4, 6.

³¹ See also Johnson's Dictionary (8th edn, London, 1792) and (11th edn, London, 1797), also the first American edition (1808).

³² Anon., Glossographia Anlicana nova: or, a dictionary, interpreting such hard words of whatever language, as are at present used in the English tongue (London, 1707); Curzon, H., The universal library: or compleat summary of science (2 vols., London, 1712), i, p. 188Google Scholar.

³³ Bailey, N., An universal etymological English dictionary (London, 1721; 25th edn, 1783)Google Scholar. See also Dyche, Thomas, A new general English dictionary (London, 1760, 1794)Google Scholar.

³⁴ Stevens, John, A new Spanish and English dictionary (London, 1706)Google Scholar; Allen, Francis, A complete English dictionary (London, 1765)Google Scholar; Scott, William, A new spelling, pronouncing and explanatory dictionary of the English Language (Edinburgh, 1786)Google Scholar; Anon., A dictionary of the English language, both with regard to sound and meaning (London, 1794).

³⁵ See, for example, Burke, Edmund, Thoughts on the cause of the present discontents (6th edn, London, 1784), p. 28Google Scholar.

³⁶ Anon., The history and proceedings of the house of commons from the Restoration to the present time (10 vols., London, 1742), x, p. 17.

³⁷ de Secondat, Charles, baron de Montesquieu, The spirit of the laws: translated from the French … with corrections and additions communicated by the author… (2 vols., London, 1750), i, pp. 31–2Google Scholar.

³⁸ Sir Steele, Richard, The Englishman: being the sequel of the Guardian (London, 1714), p. 28Google Scholar.

³⁹ Anon., The liberties of England asserted, in opposition to popery, slavery, and modern innovation (London, 1714), p. 39.

⁴⁰ ECCO revealed sixty-nine hits for ‘natural aristocracy’ using all fields, including EEBO; certain texts appeared in many editions.

⁴¹ Harrington, James, The oceana of James Harrington, esq; and his other works: with an account of his life prefix'd by John Toland (Dublin, 1758), pp. 47, 57, 253Google Scholar.

⁴² Burke, Edmund, An appeal from the new to the old whigs (Dublin, 1791), pp. 88–9Google Scholar. For a full discussion of Burke's definition of a natural aristocracy, see Goodrich, Debating England's aristocracy, ch. 1; for a useful discussion of ‘the gentleman’, see Corfield, ‘The rivals’.

⁴³ For example, Anon., The contrast, a political pasticcio; or an estimate of the coalition-ministry (London, 1784), pp. 3–4; Private volunteer (Memmius), The voice of the people, in a letter to the secretary of his grace the duke of Rutland (Dublin, 1784), pp. 45–6.

⁴⁴ For example, Anon., Thoughts on the idea of another coalition (London, 1784), pp. 19–21.

⁴⁵ See e.g. Anon., A new whig-catechism (London, 1784), p. 9; Langford, P., Public life and the propertied Englishman, 1689–1798 (Oxford, 1991), pp. 535–6Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ Williams, David, Letters on political liberty (London, 1782), pp. 19, 72Google Scholar; Anon., History of the Westminster election, containing every material occurrence, … By lovers of truth and justice (2nd edn, London, 1785), pp. 114–15; Anon., A key to the parliamentary debates; being an humble attempt to render them intelligible (London, 1785?), pp. 15–16.

⁴⁷ Williams, Letters on political liberty, pp. 43–4, 13. See also Price, Richard, Observations on the importance of the American Revolution (1785), in Thomas, D. O., ed., Richard Price: political writings (Cambridge, 1991), p. 116Google Scholar.

⁴⁸ Pocock, ‘Radical criticisms’, p. 48. See also Anon., History of the Westminster election, containing every material occurrence, by lovers of truth and justice (2nd edn, London, 1785), pp. 114–15.

⁴⁹ See Langford, Polite and commercial people, pp. 565, 691–2; Colley, L., Britons; forging the nation, 1707–1837 (London, 1992), pp. 148–9Google Scholar; Hall-Witt, J. L., ‘Reforming the aristocracy: opera and elite culture, 1780–1860’, in Burns, A. and Innes, J., eds., Rethinking the age of reform: Britain, 1790–1850 (Cambridge 2003)Google Scholar.

⁵⁰ See e.g. Deutsch, ‘Moral trespass’, pp. 220–37.

⁵¹ Deutsch, ‘Moral trespass’, p. 637; Hall-Witt, ‘Reforming the aristocracy’, pp. 220–37.

⁵² For a full discussion see Goodrich, Debating England's aristocracy, ch. 2; Wahrman, Imagining the middle class, pp. 35–6; McNally, D., ‘Political economy to the fore: Burke, Malthus and the whig response to popular radicalism in the age of the French Revolution’, History of Political Thought, 21 (2000), pp. 427–47, at p. 430Google Scholar.

⁵³ Thomas Paine, The rights of man, ed. E. Foner (London, 1985), pp. 82–3.

⁵⁴ Ibid., p. 82.

⁵⁵ See Goodrich, Debating England's aristocracy, chs. 2, 4.

⁵⁶ McNally, ‘Political economy to the fore’, p. 430.

⁵⁷ Thelwall, John, Rights of nature against the usurpations of establishments (1796), in Claeys, G. ed., Politics of English Jacobinism: writings of John Thelwall (University Park, PA, 1995), p. 476Google Scholar. See Goodrich, Debating England's aristocracy, ch. 4.

⁵⁸ For a useful summary of the significance of public opinion see Lee, George Canning, pp. 114–71.

⁵⁹ See Goodrich, Debating England's aristocracy, for a full discussion of the loyalist response.

⁶⁰ Ibid., pp. 18–19.

⁶¹ ‘Seventeenth parliament of Great Britain: fourth session, 13 June 1794’, House of Commons, Debates, p. 399.

⁶² Barrett, C., ed., Diary and letters of Madame D'Arblay, 1778–1840 (London, 1905), pp. 8, 37Google Scholar.

⁶³ Canning, G., The letters journal of George Canning 1793–1795, ed. Jupp, P. (Camden Society, 4th ser., 42, London, 1991), pp. 66–7Google Scholar.

⁶⁴ A skim-read of this text did not reveal any further usage of ‘aristocracy’.

⁶⁵ Epstein, Radical expression, p. 71.

⁶⁶ Webster, Noah, A compendious dictionary of the English language (New Haven, CT, 1806), p. 17Google Scholar; Walker, John, A critical pronouncing dictionary and expositor of the English language (21st edn, London, 1819), p. 31Google Scholar; Crabb, George, A dictionary of general knowledge (3rd edn, London, 1833), p. 31Google Scholar; Barclay's new universal English dictionary (London, 1835), p. 57; Chamberlain, Eliza, Chamberlain's young scholar's new English dictionary (London, 1846), p. 63Google Scholar. A number of the dictionaries published in the nineteenth century have editions stretching back to the eighteenth century. According to the British Library Catalogue, John Walker's Dictionary was published between 1774 and 1868 and Samuel Johnson's Dictionary between 1756 and 1866 with fourteen editions plus a number of miniatures.

⁶⁷ Samuel Johnson, Dictionary of the English language, ed. Rev. H. J. Todd (London, 1818).

⁶⁸ They were in power for seventeen of the years between 1830 and 1852; Mandler, Aristocratic government, p. 3. For examples of contemporary usage see Maj. Cartwright, Address to the electors of Westminster (1819), in Cobbett's Weekly Political Register, 24 Dec. 1831, issue 13; Octogenarius, ‘The bill’, in The Examiner, 26 Jan. 1831, issue 1221; Anon., ‘Letter to the editor’, Caledonian Mercury, 8 Dec. 1831; William Shepherd, ‘Advice to electors and reformers’, in Liverpool Mercury, 18 May 1832.

⁶⁹ Cobbett's Weekly Political Register ran for thirty-three years from 1804. He switched to radicalism increasingly from 1804.

⁷⁰ Ibid., 29 June 1816.

⁷¹ Ibid., 22 Nov. 1823.

⁷² Ibid., 27 Nov. 1824

⁷³ Ibid., 23 June 1832.

⁷⁴ Ibid., 8 Oct. 1831, 23 Apr. 1832.

⁷⁵ Wade, John, The extraordinary black book (London, 1831), pp. 284, 296Google Scholar.

⁷⁶ The Republican, Dec. 1831, pp. 193–6, qu. in I. Prothero, ‘William Benbow and the concept of the “General Strike”’, Past and Present (May 1974), pp. 132–71, at p. 140; see also Poor Man's Guardian, 28 Jan. 1832, p. 264, qu. in Prothero, ‘William Benbow’, p. 143.

⁷⁷ Paine, Rights of man, ed. Foner, p. 227.

⁷⁸ Wade, Extraordinary black book.

⁷⁹ The Agitator, Nov. 1833, p. 1.

⁸⁰ See Thomas Wooler's Black dwarf (1817–24), discussed in Epstein, Radical expression, pp. 37–9, 57–65.

⁸¹ Buller, Charles, On the necessity of radical reform (London, 1831), pp. 9–13, 22–3Google Scholar.

⁸² SirWalsh, John, MP, Bart, Observations on the ministerial plan of reform (London, 1831), pp. 24–30, 38, 53Google Scholar.

⁸³ For works on Chartism, see, for example, Chase, M., Chartism: a new history (Manchester, 2007)Google Scholar; Stedman Jones, Languages of class, ch. 3; Taylor, M., ‘Rethinking the Chartists: searching for synthesis in the historiography of Chartism’, Historical Journal, 39 (1996), pp. 479–95Google Scholar; Thompson, D., The Chartists: popular politics in the industrial revolution (London, 1984)Google Scholar.

⁸⁴ Stedman Jones, Languages of class, p. 153.

⁸⁵ The term ‘shopocracy’ denoted an aristocracy of shopkeepers who were opposed to Chartism and the retail co-ops.

⁸⁶ Qu. in Stedman Jones, Languages of class, p. 104.

⁸⁷ Philp, Mark, ‘Reaching for democracy in Britain, 1760–1830’, in Llenci, M. and Calabro, C., eds., Vlagio nella democrazia: il cammino dell'idea demmocratica nell storia del pensiero politico (Pisa, 2010)Google Scholar.

⁸⁸ Jupp, P. J., ‘The landed elite and political authority in Britain, 1760–1850’, Journal of British Studies, 29 (1990), pp. 53–97Google Scholar; Harling, P., The waning of ‘Old Corruption’: the politics of economical reform in Britain, 1779–1846 (Oxford, 1996)Google Scholar.

⁸⁹ Daunton, M., Trusting Leviathan: the politics of taxation in Britain, 1799–1914 (Cambridge 2001)Google Scholar; Daunton, M., State and market in Victorian Britain: welfare and capitalism (Woodbridge, 2008)Google Scholar.

⁹⁰ Finn, M. C., After Chartism: class and nation in English radical politics, 1848–1874 (Cambridge, 1993)Google Scholar.

⁹¹ Vernon, Politics and the people, p. 9 and ch. 3.

⁹² Beckett, Aristocracy in England, pp. 18–22; Jupp, ‘Landed elite’, pp. 56–7. See also McCahill, M., ‘Peerage creations and the changing character of the British nobility, 1750–1830’, English Historical Review, 96 (1981), pp. 259–84Google Scholar.

⁹³ Beckett, Aristocracy in England, p. 21.

⁹⁴ Anon., The aristocracy and the people (Manchester, 1830), p. 8, qu. in Beckett, Aristocracy in England, p. 20.

⁹⁵ Beckett, Aristocracy in England, p. 20.

⁹⁶ See Corfield, ‘The rivals’, pp. 2–3, 10.

⁹⁷ There is debate about this term. See, for example, Hobsbawm, E. J., Labouring men (London, 1964)Google Scholar; Foster, J., Class struggle and the industrial revolutions: early capitalism in three English towns (London, 1974)Google Scholar; Gray, R., The aristocracy of labour in nineteenth-century Britain, c. 1850–1914 (London, 1981)Google Scholar; Stedman Jones, Languages of class.

⁹⁸ See, for example, Proceedings of the association for promoting the discovery of the interior parts of Africa (London, date unknown but the related meeting took place in 1805); ‘Chit-Chat’, The satirist and the censor of the time, 18 Jan. (London, 1835); ‘Fashions for May, 1812’, La belle assemblée; or, Bell's court and fashionable magazine (London, 1812); The court magazine and monthly critic, 18 Jan. (London, 1835).

⁹⁹ McWilliam, Rohan, ‘Melodrama and the historians’, Radical History Review, 78 (2000), pp. 57–84Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁰ Ibid., p. 62.

¹⁰¹ Political Instructor, and Reynold's Miscellany (1845–69). In 1850, the Political Instructor became Reynold's Weekly News. See Humphreys, Anne, ‘G. W. M. Reynolds: popular literature & popular politics’, Victorian Periodicals Review, 3–4 (1983), pp. 79–89, at p. 84Google Scholar; Haywood, Ian, ‘George W. M. Reynolds and the radicalisation of Victorian serial fiction’, Media History, 4 (1989), pp. 121–39Google Scholar.

¹⁰² D. J. Cohen, ‘Interchange, the promise of digital history’, www.journalof americanhistory.org/issues/952/interchange/index.html, p. 2; see also Greengrass, M. and Hughes, L., eds., The virtual representation of the past (Aldershot, 2008), p. 2Google Scholar.

¹⁰³ Hitchcock, T., ‘Digital searching and re-formulation of historical knowledge’, in Greengrass, and Hughes, , eds., Virtual representation, pp. 81–90’, at p. 89Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁴ See Greengrass and Hughes, eds., Virtual representation; Withington, Society in early modern England, pp. 1–13.

¹⁰⁵ Google Ngram and Bookworm only include books and similar printed material but not manuscripts.

¹⁰⁶ For a recent case study see S. Tanner, T. Munoz, and P. H. Ros, ‘Measuring mass text digitization quality and usefulness: lessons learned from assessing the OCR accuracy of the British Library's 19th century online newspaper archive, D-Lib Magazine, 15 (2009), at www.dlib.org/dlib/ july09/Munoz/ 07munoz.html. Due to the complexity and workload required to remedy this problem they recommend using the King's Digital Consultancy Services.

¹⁰⁷ ECCO proved more unstable in this regard than other databases such as British newspapers.

¹⁰⁸ Examples include zotero, TAPoR, Google Ngram, and the Firefox extension Scrutiny but more are emerging all the time. See also the database Connected histories: British history sources 1500–1900.

¹⁰⁹ Google Ngram uses Google Books database with over 1,000,000 books published in English from 1500 to 2008. Bookworm is a collaborative project between the Harvard Cultural Observatory, the Open Library, and the Open Science Data Cloud. Bookworm uses texts in the public domain from the Open Library and Internet Archive. Bookworm enables graphical searches to explore textual trends across approximately 950,000 books from 1700. See http://bookworm.culturomics.org/ and http://openlibrary.org/. Google Ngram is case sensitive but Bookworm enables a non-case sensitive field, chosen for all Bookworm graphs here.

¹¹⁰ See Ngram and Bookworm Graphs 1.

¹¹¹ Table 1.

¹¹² Table 1.

¹¹³ Table 4. ‘Ariftocra*’ showed no hits on this database.

¹¹⁴ Table 1.

¹¹⁵ Table 1 and see also Ngram Graph 3.

¹¹⁶ See Tables 1 and 2, Ngram Graph 4 and Bookworm Graph 3. On ECCO, ‘Noblewoman’ appeared in writings on fashion, medical issues, the law, Scottish royalty, and others but none were political texts.

¹¹⁷ See Colley, Britons, pp. 244–50; Rogers, N., Crowds, culture and politics in Georgian Britain (Oxford, 1998)Google Scholar, ch. 7; Vernon, Politics and the people, ch. 6; Wilson, K., The sense of the people: politics, culture and imperialism in England, 1715–1785 (Cambridge, 1995)Google Scholar. For women in radicalism, see Bush, M. L., ‘The women at Peterloo: the impact of female reform on the Manchester meeting of 16 August 1819’, History, 294 (2004), pp. 209–32Google Scholar; Custer, P. A., ‘Refiguring Jemima: gender work and politics in Lancashire, 1770–1820’, Past and Present, 195 (2007), pp. 127–58Google Scholar.

¹¹⁸ Table 2.

¹¹⁹ Google Ngram and Bookworm Graphs 2. The growth of ‘aristocracy’ from the 1790s is more immediately marked on Bookworm.

¹²⁰ Table 4.

¹²¹ Table 6 and Table 3. It should be noted though that these databases are not necessarily comparable in terms of content or quantity of material. Eighteenth Century Journals covers the period c. 1685–1815. Each recorded only one hit for ‘ariftocra*’.

¹²² Both Google Ngram and Bookworm warn users that searches in earlier centuries are less reliable since fewer texts are available.

¹²³ See Tables 1 and 2.

¹²⁴ Table 2.

¹²⁵ See also Ngram Graphs 5 and 6 and Bookworm Graph 4.

¹²⁶ See Epstein, Radical expression, ch. 1; Hall-Witt, ‘Reforming the aristocracy’, p. 236.

¹²⁷ Hessayon and Finnegan, eds., Varieties of English radicalism, p. 3.

¹²⁸ Some databases such as ECCO contain editions of texts printed outside Britain, primarily here America and Ireland. Dates run from 1 January to 31 December of all given years in all databases searched here. These datasets are generally not case sensitive.

¹²⁹ Google labs Ngram viewer within which these graphs were created displays a graph showing the frequency of word occurrence over a specified time using the Google books database. See http://books.google.com/Ngrams. The y-axis shows what percentage of words contained in the Google books sample are those selected here, e.g. ‘aristocracy’. In making the searches ‘British English’ was used which includes ‘books predominantly in the English language and published in the United Kingdom’. Spikes in graphs are more likely to appear in material before 1800 since less material was published at that time and are not generally indicative of a significant increase, as they might suggest. A smoothing of 2 was used here. The 0 per cent flatline reflects data when less than forty books were found. See http://ngrams.googlelabs.com/info. Jean-Baptiste Michel, Yuan Kui Shen, Aviva Presser Aiden, Adrian Veres, Matthew K. Gray, William Brockman, the Google Books Team, Joseph P. Pickett, Dale Hoiberg, Dan Clancy, Peter Norvig, Jon Orwant, Steven Pinker, Martin A. Nowak, and Erez Lieberman Aiden. ‘Quantitative analysis of culture using millions of digitized books’, Science (published online ahead of print 16 Dec. 2010).

¹³⁰ Bookworm functions similarly to Ngram it but enables non-case sensitive searches and all searches for the graphs here were made non-case sensitive and in English with a smoothing of two years. Graphs created at http://bookworm.culturomics.org