Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2plfb Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T21:35:28.290Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Understanding trajectories of externalizing problems: Stability and emergence of risk factors from infancy to middle adolescence

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 May 2020

Anne Kjeldsen Open the ORCID record for Anne Kjeldsen [Opens in a new window] ,
Ragnhild Bang Nes ,
Ann Sanson ,
Eivind Ystrom  and
Evalill Bølstad Karevold
Anne Kjeldsen*
Affiliation:
Department of Child Health and Development, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway Bjørknes University College, Oslo, Norway
Ragnhild Bang Nes
Affiliation:
Department of Mental Health and Suicide, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, PROMENTA Research Centre, Oslo, Norway
Ann Sanson
Affiliation:
Department of Pediatrics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
Eivind Ystrom
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, PROMENTA Research Centre, Oslo, Norway Department of Mental Disorders, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
Evalill Bølstad Karevold
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
*
Author for correspondence: Anne Kjeldsen, Bjørknes University College, Lovisenberggata 13, 0456Oslo, Norway; E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Despite considerable efforts to understand the processes that underlie the development of externalizing behavior problems, it is still unclear why externalizing problems remain chronically high for some children, emerge early and cease by late childhood for others, and arise in adolescence in some cases. The purpose of this study was to examine how a wide range of child and family risk factors are linked to trajectories of externalizing behavior and how these relationships vary from infancy to middle adolescence. We used data from the community-based Norwegian Tracking Opportunities and Problems (TOPP) study sample (n = 921). A Cholesky factorization model was specified to separate stable and emerging risk doses across four developmental periods (infancy, early and middle childhood, and middle adolescence). Children in the High Stable class were characterized by substantially elevated risk levels in multiple domains throughout the study period. Children in the High Childhood Limited class had very high levels of temperamental emotionality, internalizing symptoms, and maternal mental distress, suggesting a substantial intrinsic emotional basis for their externalizing problems. Intrinsic factors seemed less salient for the Adolescent Onset class. These findings emphasize the need for a dynamic perspective on risk factors and support the importance of prevention and intervention efforts across multiple domains from early childhood and throughout adolescence.

Keywords

adolescenceexternalizinginfancyrisk factorstrajectories
Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 33 , Issue 1 , February 2021 , pp. 264 - 283
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2000). Manual for the ASEBA Preschool Forms & Profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.Google Scholar
Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Manual for the ASEBA School-Age Forms & Profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.Google Scholar
Angold, A., Costello, E. J., Messer, S. C., Pickles, A., Winder, F., & Silver, D. (1995). Development of a short questionnaire for use in epidemiological studies of depression in children and adolescents. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 5, 237–248.Google Scholar
Barker, E. D., & Maughan, B. (2009). Differentiating early-onset persistent versus childhood-limited conduct problem youth. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 900–908. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.08121770CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barker, E. D., Oliver, B. R., & Maughan, B. (2010). Co-occurring problems of early onset persistent, childhood limited, and adolescent onset conduct problem youth. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 51, 1217–1226. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02240.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2009). Beyond diathesis stress: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 885–908. doi:10.1037/a0017376CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boe, T., Overland, S., Lundervold, A. J., & Hysing, M. (2012). Socioeconomic status and children's mental health: Results from the Bergen Child Study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 47, 1557–1566. doi:10.1007/s00127-011-0462-9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bongers, I. L., Koot, H. M., van der Ende, J., & Verhulst, F. C. (2004). Developmental trajectories of externalizing behaviors in childhood and adolescence. Child Development, 75, 1523–1537. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00755.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bornovalova, M. A., Cummings, J. R., Hunt, E., Blazei, R., Malone, S., & Iacono, W. G. (2014). Understanding the relative contributions of direct environmental effects and passive genotype-environment correlations in the association between familial risk factors and child disruptive behavior disorders. Psychological Medicine, 44, 831–844. doi:10.1017/s0033291713001086CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. A. (2006). The bioecological model of human development. In Lerner, R. M. (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 793–828). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Buss, A. H., & Plomin, R. (1984). Temperament: Early developing personality traits. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D. (2006). Development and psychopathology. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (2nd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 1–23). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google ScholarPubMed
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioural sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Coolidge, F. L., Thede, L. L., Stewart, S. E., & Segal, D. L. (2002). The Coolidge Personality and Neuropsychological Inventory for Children (CPNI): Preliminary psychometric characteristics. Behavior Modification, 26, 550–566. doi:10.1177/0145445502026004007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Pauw, S. S., Mervielde, I., & Van Leeuwen, K. G. (2009). How are traits related to problem behavior in preschoolers? Similarities and contrasts between temperament and personality. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 309–325. doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9290-0CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dimler, L. M., & Natsuaki, M. N. (2015). The effects of pubertal timing on externalizing behaviors in adolescence and early adulthood: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Adolescence, 45, 160–170. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.07.021CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., & Eggum, N. D. (2010). Emotion-related self-regulation and its relation to children's maladjustment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 6, 495–525. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.121208.131208CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fairchild, G., Goozen, S. H. M., Calder, A. J., & Goodyer, I. M. (2013). Research review: Evaluating and reformulating the developmental taxonomic theory of antisocial behaviour. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 54, 924–940. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12102CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferguson, K. M. (2006). Social capital and children's wellbeing: A critical synthesis of the international social capital literature. International Journal of Social Welfare, 15(1), 2–18. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2397.2006.00575.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., & Nagin, D. S. (2000). Offending trajectories in a New Zealand birth cohort. Criminology, 38, 525–552. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2000.tb00898.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Figge, C. J., Martinez-Torteya, C., & Weeks, J. E. (2018). Social-ecological predictors of externalizing behavior trajectories in at-risk youth. Development and Psychopathology, 30, 255–266. doi:10.1017/s0954579417000608CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Franken, A., Moffitt, T. E., Steglich, C. E., Dijkstra, J. K., Harakeh, Z., & Vollebergh, W. A. (2016). The role of self-control and early adolescents’ friendships in the development of externalizing behavior: The SNARE Study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45, 1800–1811. doi:10.1007/s10964-015-0287-zCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ge, X., & Natsuaki, M. N. (2009). In search of explanations for early pubertal timing effects on developmental psychopathology. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 327–331. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01661.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gjone, H., & Stevenson, J. (1997). A longitudinal twin study of temperament and behaviour problems: Common genetic or environmental influences? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1448–1456. doi:10.1097/00004583-199710000-00028CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodman, R. (1994). A modified version of the Rutter parent questionnaire including extra items on children's strengths: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 1483–1494.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gustavson, K., von Soest, T., Karevold, E., & Roysamb, E. (2012). Attrition and generalizability in longitudinal studies: Findings from a 15-year population-based study and a Monte Carlo simulation study. BMC Public Health, 12, Article 918. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-12-918CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hagen, K. A., Ogden, T., & Bjornebekk, G. (2011). Treatment outcomes and mediators of parent management training: A one-year follow-up of children with conduct problems. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 40, 165–178. doi:10.1080/15374416.2011.546050CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heiervang, E., Stormark, K. M., Lundervold, A. J., Heimann, M., Goodman, R., Posserud, M.-B., … Gillberg, C. (2007). Psychiatric disorders in Norwegian 8- to 10-year-olds: An epidemiological survey of prevalence, risk factors, and service use. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 438–447. doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e31803062bfCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hesbacher, P. T., Rickels, K., Morris, R. J., Newman, H., & Rosenfeld, H. (1980). Psychiatric illness in family practice. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 41, 6–10.Google ScholarPubMed
Hicks, B. M., Foster, K. T., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2013). Genetic and environmental influences on the familial transmission of externalizing disorders in adoptive and twin offspring. Journal of the American Medical Association Psychiatry, 70, 1076–1083. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.258Google ScholarPubMed
Janson, H., & Mathiesen, K. S. (2008). Temperament profiles from infancy to middle childhood: Development and associations with behavior problems. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1314–1328. doi:10.1037/a0012713CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, K. S., & Baker, J. H. (2007). Genetic influences on measures of the environment: A systematic review. Psychological Medicine, 37, 615–626. doi:10.1017/s0033291706009524CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, R. C., Avenevoli, S., Costello, E. J., Georgiades, K., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., … Merikangas, K. R. (2012). Prevalence, persistence, and sociodemographic correlates of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69, 372–380. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.160Google ScholarPubMed
Kjeldsen, A. (2013). Longitudinal profiles of externalising behaviour problems from infancy to middle adolescence: Early predictors, timing of risk factors, and late adolescence outcomes. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway, 2013). Retrieved from https://www.duo.uio.no/handle/10852/55780Google Scholar
Kjeldsen, A., Janson, H., Stoolmiller, M., Torgersen, L., & Mathiesen, K. S. (2014). Externalising behaviour from infancy to middle adolescence: Latent profiles and early predictors. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 35, 25–34. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2013.11.003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kjeldsen, A., Nilsen, W., Gustavson, K., Skipstein, A., Melkevik, O., & Karevold, E. B. (2016). Predicting well-being and internalizing symptoms in late adolescence from trajectories of externalizing behavior starting in infancy. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 26, 991–1008. doi:10.1111/jora.12252CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kretschmer, T., Hickman, M., Doerner, R., Emond, A., Lewis, G., Macleod, J., … Heron, J. (2014). Outcomes of childhood conduct problem trajectories in early adulthood: Findings from the ALSPAC study. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 23, 539–549. doi:10.1007/s00787-013-0488-5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lansford, J. E., Godwin, J., Bornstein, M. H., Chang, L., Deater-Deckard, K., Di Giunta, L., … Bacchini, D. (2018). Parenting, culture, and the development of externalizing behaviors from age 7 to 14 in nine countries. Development and Psychopathology, 30, 1937–1958. doi:10.1017/s0954579418000925CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Larsson, B., Fossum, S., Clifford, G., Drugli, M. B., Handegard, B. H., & Morch, W. T. (2009). Treatment of oppositional defiant and conduct problems in young Norwegian children: Results of a randomized controlled trial. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 18, 42–52. doi:10.1007/s00787-008-0702-zCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loeber, R., & Farrington, D. P. (2001). Young children who commit crime: Epidemiology, developmental origins, risk factors, early interventions, and policy implications. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 737–762.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loehlin, J. C. (1996). The Cholesky approach: A cautionary note. Behavior Genetics, 26, 65–69. doi:10.1007/bf02361160CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marceau, K., Horwitz, B. N., Narusyte, J., Ganiban, J. M., Spotts, E. L., Reiss, D., & Neiderhiser, J. M. (2013). Gene-environment correlation underlying the association between parental negativity and adolescent externalizing problems. Child Development, 84, 2031–2046. doi:10.1111/cdev.12094CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marmot, M., Atkinson, T., Bell, J., Black, C., Broadfoot, P., Cumberlege, J., … Mulgan, G. (2010). Fair societies healthy lives (The Marmot Review). Institute of Health Equity. Retrieved from http://www.instituteofhealthequity.orgGoogle Scholar
Masten, A. S., Roisman, G. I., Long, J. D., Burt, K. B., Obradovic, J., Riley, J. R., … Tellegen, A. (2005). Developmental cascades: Linking academic achievement and externalizing and internalizing symptoms over 20 years. Developmental Psychology, 41, 733–746. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.5.733CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mathiesen, K. S., Kjeldsen, A., Skipstein, A., Karevold, E., Torgersen, L., & Helgeland, H. (2007). Trivsel og oppvekst—barndom og ungdomstid [Thriving and growing up—childhood and adolescence]. Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Rapport 5. Retrieved from Oslo: https://www.fhi.no/publ/eldre/trivsel-og-oppvekst--barndom-og-ung/Google Scholar
Mathiesen, K. S., Tambs, K., & Dalgard, O. S. (1999). The influence of social class, strain and social support on symptoms of anxiety and depression in mothers of toddlers. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 34, 61–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Merikangas, K. R., He, J. P., Burstein, M., Swanson, S. A., Avenevoli, S., & Cui, L. (2010). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in U.S. adolescents: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication-Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 980–989. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2010.05.017CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescent-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674–701.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E. (2005). Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behaviors: Evidence from behavioral–genetic research. Advances in Genetics, 55, 41–104. doi:10.1016/S0065-2660(05)55003-XCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E. (2006). Life-course-persistent versus adolescent-limited antisocial behavior. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (pp. 570–598). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Jaffee, S. R., Kim-Cohen, J., Koenen, K. C., Odgers, C. L., … Viding, E. (2008). Research review: DSM-V conduct disorder: Research needs for an evidence base. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 49, 3–33. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01823.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muthén, B. O., & Muthén, L. K. (2011). Mplus version 6.11. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.Google Scholar
Neppl, T. K., Donnellan, M. B., Scaramella, L. V., Widaman, K. F., Spilman, S. K., Ontai, L. L., & Conger, R. D. (2010). Differential stability of temperament and personality from toddlerhood to middle childhood. Journal of Research in Personality, 44, 386–396. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2010.04.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nilsen, W., Kjeldsen, A., Karevold, E. B., Skipstein, A., Sand Helland, M., Gustavson, K., … Mathiesen, K. S. (2017). Cohort profile: The Tracking Opportunities and Problems Study (TOPP)-study of Norwegian children and their parents followed from infancy to early adulthood. International Journal of Epidemiology, 46, 1399–1399g. doi:10.1093/ije/dyx057CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Odgers, C. L., Moffitt, T. E., Broadbent, J. M., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., … Caspi, A. (2008). Female and male antisocial trajectories: from childhood origins to adult outcomes. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 673–716. doi:10.1017/s0954579408000333CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perry, N. B., Calkins, S. D., Dollar, J. M., Keane, S. P., & Shanahan, L. (2018). Self-regulation as a predictor of patterns of change in externalizing behaviors from infancy to adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 30, 497–510. doi:10.1017/s0954579417000992CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Polderman, T. J. C., Benyamin, B., de Leeuw, C. A., Sullivan, P. F., van Bochoven, A., Visscher, P. M., & Posthuma, D. (2015). Meta-analysis of the heritability of human traits based on fifty years of twin studies. Nature Genetics, 47, 702–709. doi:10.1038/ng.3285CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramos-Marcuse, F., Oberlander, S. E., Papas, M. A., McNary, S. W., Hurley, K. M., & Black, M. M. (2010). Stability of maternal depressive symptoms among urban, low-income, African American adolescent mothers. Journal of Affective Disorders, 122, 68–75. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2009.06.018CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reid, J. B., Patterson, G. R., & Snyder, J. J. (2002). Antisocial behavior in children and adolescents: A developmental analysis and model for intervention. Washington DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Richman, N., & Graham, P. J. (1971). A behavioural screening questionnaire for use with three-year old children: Preliminary findings. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 12, 5–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roisman, G. I., Monahan, K. C., Campbell, S. B., Steinberg, L., & Cauffman, E. (2010). Is adolescence-onset antisocial behavior developmentally normative? Development and Psychopathology, 22, 295–311. doi:10.1017/s0954579410000076CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roskam, I. (2018). Externalizing behavior from early childhood to adolescence: Prediction from inhibition, language, parenting, and attachment. Development and Psychopathology, 31, 1–13. doi:10.1017/s0954579418000135Google ScholarPubMed
Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (2006). Temperament. In Eisenberg, N. (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology, social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., pp. 99–166). Hobroken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Samek, D. R., & Hicks, B. M. (2014). Externalizing disorders and environmental risk: Mechanisms of gene-environment interplay and strategies for intervention. Clinical Practice, 11, 537–547. doi:10.2217/CPR.14.47CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Samek, D. R., Hicks, B. M., Keyes, M. A., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2017). Antisocial peer affiliation and externalizing disorders: Evidence for gene × environment × development interaction. Development and Psychopathology, 29, 155–172. doi:10.1017/S0954579416000109CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schenker, N., & Gentleman, J. F. (2001). On judging the significance of differences by examining the overlap between confidence intervals. The American Statistician, 55, 182–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sentse, M., Kretschmer, T., de Haan, A., & Prinzie, P. (2016). Conduct problem trajectories between age 4 and 17 and their association with behavioral adjustment in emerging adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46, 1633–1642 (2017). doi:10.1007/s10964-016-0476-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shaw, D. S., Owens, E. B., Giovannelli, J., & Winslow, E. B. (2001). Infant and toddler pathways leading to early externalizing disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 36–43. doi:10.1097/00004583-200101000-00014CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skipstein, A., Janson, H., Stoolmiller, M., & Mathiesen, K. S. (2010). Trajectories of maternal symptoms of anxiety and depression. A 13-year longitudinal study of a population-based sample. BMC Public Health, 10, Article 589. Retrieved from doi:10.1186/1471-2458-10-589CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smart, D., Vassallo, S., Sanson, A., Richardson, N., Dussuyer, I., McKendry, B., … Oberklaid, F. (2003). Patterns and precursors of adolescent antisocial behaviour: Types, resiliency and environmental influences. Melbourne, Australia: Australian Institute of Family Studies. Retrieved from https://aifs.gov.au/publications/archived/3079Google Scholar
Snyder, J. J. (2015). Coercive family processes in the development of externalising behaviour: Incorporating neurobiology into intervention research. In Beauchaine, T. P. & Hinslaw, S. P. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of externalizing spectrum disorders. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Snyder, J. J., Schrepferman, L., McEachern, A., Barner, S., Johnson, K., & Provines, J. (2008). Peer deviancy training and peer coercion: Dual processes associated with early-onset conduct problems. Child Development, 79, 252–268. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01124.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soto, C. J., & John, O. P. (2014). Traits in transition: The structure of parent-reported personality traits from early childhood to early adulthood. Journal of Personality, 82, 182–199. doi:10.1111/jopy.12044CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soto, C. J., John, O. P., Gosling, S. D., & Potter, J. (2011). Age differences in personality traits from 10 to 65: Big five domains and facets in a large cross-sectional sample. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 330–348. doi:10.1037/a0021717CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Statistics Norway. (2012). Immigrants and Norwegian-born to immigrant parents. Retrieved from http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/02/01/10/innvbef_en/Google Scholar
Statistics Norway. (2017). Ett av ti barn tilhører en husholdning med vedvarende lavinntekt [One in ten children live in a household with persistent low income]. Retrieved from https://www.ssb.no/inntekt-og-forbruk/artikler-og-publikasjoner/ett-av-ti-barn-tilhorer-en-husholdning-med-vedvarende-lavinntektGoogle Scholar
Strand, B. H., Dalgard, O. S., Tambs, K., & Rognerud, M. (2003). Measuring the mental health status of the Norwegian population: A comparison of the instruments SCL-25, SCL-10, SCL-5 and MHI-5 (SF-36). Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 57, 113–118. doi:10.1080/08039480310000932CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stringaris, A., Lewis, G., & Maughan, B. (2014). Developmental pathways from childhood conduct problems to early adult depression: Findings from the ALSPAC cohort. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 205, 17–23. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.113.134221CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tambs, K., Ronning, T., Prescott, C. A., Kendler, K. S., Reichborn-Kjennerud, T., Torgersen, S., & Harris, J. R. (2009). The Norwegian Institute of Public Health twin study of mental health: Examining recruitment and attrition bias. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 12, 158–168. doi:10.1375/twin.12.2.158CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Torvik, F. A., Rognmo, K., & Tambs, K. (2012). Alcohol use and mental distress as predictors of non-response in a general population health survey: The HUNT study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 47, 805–816. doi:10.1007/s00127-011-0387-3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tremblay, R. E., Nagin, D. S., Séguin, J. R., Zoccolillo, M., Zelazo, P. D., Boivin, M., … Japel, C. (2004). Physical aggression during early childhood: Trajectories and predictors. Pediatrics, 114, e43–e50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Beijsterveldt, C. E., Bartels, M., Hudziak, J. J., & Boomsma, D. I. (2003). Causes of stability of aggression from early childhood to adolescence: A longitudinal genetic analysis in Dutch twins. Behavior Genetics, 33, 591–605.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Roy, B., Groholt, B., Heyerdahl, S., & Clench-Aas, J. (2006). Self-reported strengths and difficulties in a large Norwegian population 10–19 years: Age and gender specific results of the extended SDQ-questionnaire. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 15, 189–198. doi:10.1007/s00787-005-0521-4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vassallo, S., Smart, D., Sanson, A., Dussuyer, I., McKendry, B., Toumbourou, J., … Oberklaid, F. (2002). Patterns and precursors of adolescent antisocial behaviour. The first report. Melbourne, Australia: Australian Institute of Family Studies. Retrieved from https://aifs.gov.au/publications/archived/3074Google Scholar
Veenstra, R., Lindenberg, S., Verhulst, F. C., & Ormel, J. (2008). Childhood-limited versus persistent antisocial behavior. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 29, 718–742. doi:10.1177/0272431608325501CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wakschlag, L. S., Tolan, P. H., & Leventhal, B. L. (2010). Research review: ‘Ain't misbehavin’: Towards a developmentally-specified nosology for preschool disruptive behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 3–22. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02184.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wichstrom, L., Berg-Nielsen, T. S., Angold, A., Egger, H. L., Solheim, E., & Sveen, T. H. (2012). Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in preschoolers. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 53, 695–705. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02514.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Windhorst, D. A., Mileva-Seitz, V. R., Linting, M., Hofman, A., Jaddoe, V. W., Verhulst, F. C., … Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2015). Differential susceptibility in a developmental perspective: DRD4 and maternal sensitivity predicting externalizing behavior. Developmental Psychobiology, 57, 35–49. doi:10.1002/dev.21257CrossRefGoogle Scholar