Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T09:08:36.862Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The joint development of externalizing and internalizing behaviors in black and Hispanic youth and the link to late adolescent substance use

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 February 2021

Megan Bears Augustyn Open the ORCID record for Megan Bears Augustyn [Opens in a new window] ,
Celia J. Fulco ,
Della Agbeke  and
Kimberly L. Henry
Megan Bears Augustyn*
Affiliation:
Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
Celia J. Fulco
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
Della Agbeke
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
Kimberly L. Henry
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
*
Author for Correspondence: Megan Bears Augustyn, Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 501 W. Cesar Chavez Blvd., San Antonio, TX78207; E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

There is a need to understand how the joint development of externalizing and internalizing behaviors is related to substance use, particularly among historically understudied and often disadvantaged populations. Latent class models were used to estimate patterns of externalizing behaviors and internalizing behaviors in the form of depressive and anxious symptoms from age 6 to 14 among 390 Black and Hispanic youth. Then, growth curve models of substance use between the ages of 15 and 19 were estimated as a function of joint latent class membership. Only elevated levels of externalizing behaviors were associated with higher levels of substance use through age 18. Internalizing behaviors appeared to serve as a protective factor among those with moderate displays of externalizing behavior only. Additionally, growth in substance use from ages 15 to 19 was slower among those who displayed the highest level of externalizing behaviors, and internalizing behaviors appeared to moderate growth (and serve as protective factor) among those who displayed moderate levels of externalizing behaviors. The findings underscore the importance of pattern profiles based on observations of the joint development of problem behaviors to assess risk for substance use, particularly in understudied populations where risk/protective factors may operate in a unique manner.

Keywords

externalizing behaviorgrowth curve modelsinternalizing behaviorsubstance usetrajectory models
Type
Regular Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 34 , Issue 3 , August 2022 , pp. 1144 - 1162
Check for updates
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the youth self-report and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont.Google Scholar
Achenbach, T. M., & Edelbrock, C. S. (1978). The classification of child psychopathology: A review and analysis of empirical efforts. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 1275–1301. doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.85.6.1275CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. (2001). Manual for the ASEBA school-age forms & profiles: An integrated system of multi-informant assessment. Burlington, VT: Aseba.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (APA). (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV-TR®. American Psychiatric Association. doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890423349Google Scholar
Anderson, E. R., & Mayes, L. C. (2010). Race/ethnicity and internalizing disorders in youth: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 338–348. doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.12.008CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Angold, A., Costello, E. J., & Erkanli, A. (1999). Comorbidity. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 40, 57–87. doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00424CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Austin, A. A., & Chorpita, B. F. (2004). Temperament, anxiety, and depression: Comparisons across five ethnic groups of children. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 216–226. doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3302_2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Banks, D. E., & Zapolski, T. C. B. (2018). The crossover effect: A review of racial/ethnic variations in risk for substance use and substance use disorder across development. Current Addiction Reports, 5, 386–395. doi.org/10.1007/s40429-018-0220-0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boivin, M., & Hymel, S. (1995). The roles of social withdrawal, peer rejection, and victimization by peers in predicting loneliness and depressed. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 765–785.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brody, G. H., Chen, Y. F., Murry, V. M. B., Simons, R. L., Ge, X., Gibbons, F. X., … Cutrona, C. E. (2006). Perceived discrimination and the adjustment of Black youths: A five-year longitudinal analysis with contextual moderation effects. Child Development, 77, 1170–1189. doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00927.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A., Houts, R. M., Belsky, D. W., Goldman-Mellor, S. J., Harrington, H., Israel, S., … Moffitt, T. E. (2014). The p factor: One general psychopathology factor in the structure of psychiatric disorders?. Clinical Psychological Science, 2(2), 119–137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chan, Y. F., Dennis, M. L., & Funk, R. R. (2008). Prevalence and comorbidity of major internalizing and externalizing problems among adolescents and adults presenting to substance abuse treatment. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 34, 14–24. doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2006.12.031CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chassin, L., Haller, M., Lee, M., Handley, E., Bountress, K., & Beltran, I. (2016). 13 familial factors influencing offspring substance use and dependence. In Sher, K. J. (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of substance use and substance use disorders (Vol. 1, p. 449). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199381678.013.008Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 597–600. doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400007318CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colder, C. R., Frndak, S., Lengua, L. J., Read, J. P., Hawk, L. W., & Wieczorek, W. F. (2018). Internalizing and externalizing problem behavior: A test of a latent variable interaction predicting a two-part growth model of adolescent substance use. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 46, 319–330. doi.org/10.1007/s10802-017-0277-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colder, C. R., Scalco, M., Trucco, E. M., Read, J. P., Lengua, L. J., Wieczorek, W. F., & Hawk, L. W. (2013). Prospective associations of internalizing and externalizing problems and their co-occurrence with early adolescent substance use. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41, 667–677. doi.org/10.1007/s10802-012-9701-0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, P. M., Tamang, B. L., & Shrestha, S. (2006). Cultural variations in the socialization of young children's anger and shame. Child Development, 77, 1237–1251. doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00931.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Comeau, J., & Boyle, M. H. (2018). Patterns of poverty exposure and children's trajectories of externalizing and internalizing behaviors. SSM – Population Health, 4, 86–94. doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2017.11.012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crouse, J. J., Chitty, K. M., Iorfino, F., White, D., Nichles, A., Zmicerevska, N., … Hickie, I. B. (2019). Exploring associations between early substance use and longitudinal socio-occupational functioning in young people engaged in a mental health service. PLoS One, 14, e0210877. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0210877CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dahl, R. E., & Spear, L. P. (Eds.) (2004). Adolescent brain development: A period of vulnerabilities and opportunities (Vol. 1021). New York, NY: Academy of Sciences.Google ScholarPubMed
Deas, D., & Brown, E. S. (2006). Adolescent substance abuse and psychiatric comorbidities. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67, 18.Google ScholarPubMed
Duprey, E. B., Oshri, A., & Liu, S. (2019). Developmental pathways from child maltreatment to adolescent suicide-related behaviors: The internalizing and externalizing comorbidity hypothesis. Development and Psychopathology, 1–15. doi.org/10.1017/S0954579419000919Google Scholar
Dyer, M. L., Easey, K. E., Heron, J., Hickman, M., & Munafò, M. R. (2019). Associations of child and adolescent anxiety with later alcohol use and disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Addiction, 114, 968–982. doi.org/10.1111/add.14575CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elam, K. K., Wang, F. L., Bountress, K., Chassin, L., Pandika, D., & Lemery-Chalfant, K. (2016). Predicting substance use in emerging adulthood: A genetically informed study of developmental transactions between impulsivity and family conflict. Development and Psychopathology, 28, 673–688. doi.org/10.1017/S0954579416000249CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fanti, K. A., & Henrich, C. C. (2010). Trajectories of pure and co-occurring internalizing and externalizing problems from age 2 to age 12: Findings from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care. Developmental Psychology, 46, 1159–1175. doi.org/10.1037/a0020659CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farmer, R. F., Gau, J. M., Seeley, J. R., Kosty, D. B., Sher, K. J., & Lewinsohn, P. M. (2016). Internalizing and externalizing disorders as predictors of alcohol use disorder onset during three developmental periods. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 164, 38–46. doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.04.021CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foster, K. T., Hicks, B. M., & Zucker, R. A. (2018). Positive and negative effects of internalizing on alcohol use problems from childhood to young adulthood: The mediating and suppressing role of externalizing. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 127, 394–403. doi.org/10.1037/abn0000337CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gonzales, N. A., Liu, Y., Jensen, M., Tein, J. Y., White, R. M. B., & Deardorff, J. (2017). Externalizing and internalizing pathways to Mexican American adolescents’ risk taking. Development and Psychopathology, 29, 1371–1390. doi.org/10.1017/S0954579417000323CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Groenman, A. P., Janssen, T. W. P., & Oosterlaan, J. (2017). Childhood psychiatric disorders as risk factor for subsequent substance abuse: A meta-analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 56, 556–569. doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2017.05.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hall, W. D., Patton, G., Stockings, E., Weier, M., Lynskey, M., Morley, K. I., & Degenhardt, L. (2016). Why young people's substance use matters for global health. The Lancet Psychiatry, 3, 265–279. doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(16)00013-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammond, A. S., Paul, M. J., Hobelmann, J., Koratana, A. R., Dredze, M, & Chisolm, M. S. (2018). Perceived attitudes about substance use in anonymous social media posts near college campuses: Observational study. JMIR Mental Health, 5(3), e52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hatoum, A. S., Rhee, S. H., Corley, R. P., Hewitt, J. K., & Friedman, N. P. (2018). Etiology of stability and growth of internalizing and externalizing behavior problems across childhood and adolescence. Behavior Genetics, 48, 298–314. doi.org/10.1007/s10519-018-9900-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, L. G., Coie, J. D., Lochman, J. E., Greenberg, M. T., & The Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2004). Effectiveness of early screening for externalizing problems: Issues of screening accuracy and utility. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 809–820. doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.72.5.809CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55. doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hussong, A. M., Curran, P. J., & Chassin, L. (1998). Pathways of risk for accelerated heavy alcohol use among adolescent children of alcoholic parents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26, 453–466. doi.org/10.1023/A:1022699701996CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hussong, A. M., Ennett, S. T., Cox, M. J., & Haroon, M. (2017). A systematic review of the unique prospective association of negative affect symptoms and adolescent substance use controlling for externalizing symptoms. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 31, 137–147. doi.org/10.1037/adb0000247CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hussong, A. M., Jones, D. J., Stein, G. L., Baucom, D. H., & Boeding, S. (2011). An internalizing pathway to alcohol use and disorder. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 25, 390–404. doi.org/10.1037/a0024519CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
James, W. H., Kim, G. K., & Armijo, E. (2000). The influence of ethnic identity on drug use among ethnic minority adolescents. Journal of Drug Education, 30, 265–280.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jarvis, S. N., & Okonofua, J. A. (2020). School deferred: When bias affects school leaders. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 11, 492–498.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnston, L. D., Miech, R. A., O'Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., Schulenberg, J. E., & Patrick, M. E. (2019). Monitoring the future national survey results on drug use 1975-2018: Overview, key findings on adolescent drug use. Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keiley, M. K., Bates, J. E., Dodge, K. A., & Pettit, G. S. (2000). A cross-domain growth analysis: Externalizing and internalizing behaviors during 8 years of childhood. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 161–179.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kerr, D. C. R., Tiberio, S. S., Capaldi, D. M., & Owen, L. D. (2020). Paternal and maternal prescription opioid use and misuse: General and specific risks for early adolescents’ substance use. Addictive Behaviors, 103, 106248. doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.106248CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
King, S. M., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2004). Childhood externalizing and internalizing psychopathology in the prediction of early substance use. Addiction, 99, 1548–1559. doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00893.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leve, L. D., Kim, H. K., & Pears, K. C. (2005). Childhood temperament and family environment as predictors of internalizing and externalizing trajectories from ages 5 to 17. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 505–520. doi.org/10.1007/s10802-005-6734-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lipari, R. N., & Jean-Francois, B. (2016). A Day in the Life of College Students Aged 18 to 22: Substance Use Facts. The CBHSQ Report. Rockville, MD: Center for Behavioral Statistics and Quality. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK396154/pdf/Bookshelf_NBK396154.pdfGoogle Scholar
Liu, J. (2004). Childhood externalizing behavior: Theory and implications. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 17, 93–103. doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6171.2004.tb00003.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, J., Mustanski, B., Dick, D., Bolland, J., & Kertesm, D. A. (2017). Risk and protective factors for comorbid externalizing and internalizing problems among economically disadvantaged Black youth. Development and Psychopathology, 29, 1043–1056. Retrieved from https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/D24BDD5C99F60AE11C3E234B8E5FC472/S0954579416001188a.pdf/div-class-title-risk-and-protective-factors-for-comorbid-internalizing-and-externalizing-problems-among-economically-disadvantaCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lizotte, A. J., Chard-Wierschem, D. J., Loeber, R., & Stern, S. B. (1992). A shortened Child Behavior Checklist for delinquency studies. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 8, 233–245. doi.org/10.1007/BF01066746CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & White, H. R. (1999). Developmental aspects of delinquency and internalizing problems and their association with persistent juvenile substance use between ages 7 and 18. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 28, 322–332. doi.org/10.1207/S15374424jccp280304CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maslowsky, J., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2013). Interaction matters: Quantifying Conduct Problem × Depressive Symptoms interaction and its association with adolescent alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use in a national sample. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 1029–1043. doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000357CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mason, W. A., Hitchings, J. E., & Spoth, R. L. (2008). The interaction of conduct problems and depressed mood in relation to adolescent substance involvement and peer substance use. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 96, 233–248. doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.03.012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masyn, K. E., Petras, H., & Liu, W. (2014). Growth curve models with categorical outcomes. In Bruinsma, G., & Weisburd, D. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of criminology and criminal justice (pp. 2013–2025). New York: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCarty, C. A., Wymbs, B. T., King, K. M., Mason, W. A., Stoep, A. V., McCauley, E., & Baer, J. (2012). Developmental consistency in associations between depressive symptoms and alcohol use in early adolescence. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 73, 444–453. doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2012.73.444CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLaughlin, K. A., Hilt, L. M., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2007). Racial/ethnic differences in internalizing and externalizing symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 801–816. doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9128-1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mehta, P. D., Neale, M. C., & Flay, B. R. (2004). Squeezing interval change from ordinal panel data: Latent growth curves with ordinal outcomes. Psychological Methods, 9, 301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meque, I., Dachew, B. A., Maravilla, J. C., Salom, C., & Alati, R. (2019). Externalizing and internalizing symptoms in childhood and adolescence and the risk of alcohol use disorders in young adulthood: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 53, 965–975. doi.org/10.1177/0004867419844308CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miner, J. L., & Clarke-Stewart, K. A. (2008). Trajectories of externalizing behavior from age 2 to age 9: Relations with gender, temperament, ethnicity, parenting, and rater. Developmental Psychology, 44, 771–786. doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.771CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moore, G. F., Cox, R., Evans, R. E., Hallingberg, B., Hawkins, J., Littlecott, H. J., … Murphy, S. (2018). School, peer and family relationships and adolescent substance Use, subjective wellbeing and mental health symptoms in Wales: A cross sectional study. Child Indicators Research, 11, 1951–1965. doi.org/10.1007/s12187-017-9524-1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mrug, S., & McCay, R. (2013). Parental and peer disapproval of alcohol use and its relationship to adolescent drinking: Age, gender, and racial differences. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 27, 604.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muthén, B. (2001). Second-generation structural equation modeling with a combination of categorical and continuous latent variables: New opportunities for latent class–latent growth modeling. In Collins, L. M. & Sayer, A. G. (Eds.), New methods for the analysis of change (pp. 291–322). American Psychological Association. doi.org/10.1037/10409-010CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2017). Mplus user's guide. (8th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.Google Scholar
Nagin, D. S. (2005). Group-based modeling of development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=cE0mwX_ByVMC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=Nagin,+D.+S.+(2005).+Group-based+modeling+of+development.+Harvard+University+Press.&ots=X3sR7e9Odn&sig=H9PB6RrOSReS8LYHM-eTCb2U-wQ#v=onepage&q=Nagin%2C D. S. (2005). Group-based modCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nivard, M. G., Lubke, G. H., Dolan, C. V., Evans, D. M., St Pourcain, B., Munafò, M. R., & Middeldorp, C. M. (2017). Joint developmental trajectories of internalizing and externalizing disorders between childhood and adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 29, 919–928.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Neil, K. A., Conner, B. T., & Kendall, P. C. (2011). Internalizing disorders and substance use disorders in youth: Comorbidity, risk, temporal order, and implications for intervention. Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 104–112. doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.08.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Otten, R., Mun, C. J., Shaw, D. S., Wilson, M. N., & Dishion, T. J. (2019). A developmental cascade model for early adolescent-onset substance use: The role of early childhood stress. Addiction, 114, 326–334. doi.org/10.1111/add.14452CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pesenti-Gritti, P., Spatola, C. A. M., Fagnani, C., Ogliari, A., Patriarca, V., Stazi, M. A., & Battaglia, M. (2008). The co-occurrence between internalizing and externalizing behaviors. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 17, 82–92. doi.org/10.1007/s00787-007-0639-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richmond-Rakerd, L. S., Slutske, W. S., & Wood, P. K. (2017). Age of initiation and substance use progression: A multivariate latent growth analysis. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 31, 664.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robins, L. N., Cottler, L. B., Bucholz, K. K., Compton, W. M., North, C. S., & Rourke, K. M. (2000). Diagnostic interview schedule for the DSM-IV (DIS-IV). St. Louis, MO: Washington University School of Medicine.Google Scholar
Roeder, K., Lynch, K. G., & Nagin, D. S. (1999). Modeling uncertainty in latent class membership: A case study in criminology. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 94, 766–776. doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1999.10474179CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rowe, C. L., Liddle, H. A., & Dakof, G. A. (2001). Classifying clinically referred adolescent substance abusers by level of externalizing and internalizing symptoms. Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse, 11, 41–65. doi.org/10.1300/J029v11n02_03CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scalco, M. D., Colder, C. R., Hawk, L. W. Jr, Read, J. P., Wieczorek, W. F., & Lengua, L. J. (2014). Internalizing and externalizing problem behavior and early adolescent substance use: A test of a latent variable interaction and conditional indirect effects. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 28, 828–840. doi.org/10.1037/a0035805CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schneider, B., Martinez, S., & Owens, A. (2006). Barriers to educational opportunities for Hispanics in the United States. In Mitchell, F. & Tienda, M. (Eds.), Hispanics and the future of America (pp. 179–227). Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=71up6n8yH1gC&oi=fnd&pg=PA179&dq=Schneider,+B.,+Martinez,+S.,+%26+Owens,+A.+(2006).+Barriers+to+educational+-opportunities+for+++Hispanics+in+the+United+States.+Hispanics+and+the+future+of+America,+179-227.&ots=agGoogle Scholar
Shih, R. A., Miles, J. N., Tucker, J. S., Zhou, A. J., & Amico, E. J. (2010). Racial/ethnic differences in adolescent substance use: Mediation by individual, family, and school factors. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 71(5), 640–651.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Squeglia, L. M., Jacobus, J., Nguyen-Louie, T. T., & Tapert, S. F. (2014). Inhibition during early adolescence predicts alcohol and marijuana use by late adolescence. Neuropsychology, 28, 782–790. doi.org/10.1037/neu0000083CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
StataCorp. (2019). Stata Statistical Software: Release 16. College Station, TX: StataCorp LLC.Google Scholar
Sterba, S. K., Prinstein, M. J., & Cox, M. J. (2007). Trajectories of internalizing problems across childhood: Heterogeneity, external validity, and gender differences. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 345–366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Swendsen, J., Burstein, M., Case, B., Conway, K. P., Dierker, L., He, J., & Merikangas, K. R. (2012). Use and abuse of alcohol and illicit drugs in US adolescents: Results of the National Comorbidity Survey-Adolescent Supplement. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69, 390–398. doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.1503Google ScholarPubMed
Thompson, R., Tabone, J. K., Litrownik, A. J., Briggs, E. C., Hussey, J. M., English, D. J., & Dubowitz, H. (2011). Early adolescent risk behavior outcomes of childhood externalizing behavioral trajectories. Journal of Early Adolescence, 31, 234–257. doi.org/10.1177/0272431609361203CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thornberry, T. P., Henry, K. L., Krohn, M. D., Lizotte, A. J., & Nadel, E. L. (2018). Key findings from the Rochester Intergenerational Study. In Eichelsheim, V. I., & van de Weijer, S. G. A. (Eds.), Intergenerational continuity of criminal and antisocial behavior: An international overview of current studies (pp. 214–234). Oxford: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thornberry, T. P., Krohn, M. D., Lizotte, A. J., Tobin, K., & Smith, C. A. (2003). Gangs and delinquency in developmental perspective. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Varela, R. E., Vernberg, E. M., Sanchez-Sosa, J. J., Riveros, A., Mitchell, M., & Mashunkashey, J. (2004). Anxiety reporting and culturally associated interpretation biases and cognitive schemas: A comparison of Mexican, Mexican American, and European American families. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 237–247. doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3302_4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Varela, R. E., Weems, C. F., Berman, S. L., Hensley, L., & de Bernal, M. C. R. (2007). Internalizing symptoms in Latinos: The role of anxiety sensitivity. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 429–440. doi.org/10.1007/s10964-007-9168-4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wallace, S. A., & Fisher, C. B. (2007). Substance use attitudes among urban black adolescents: The role of parent, peer, and cultural factors. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 441–451. doi.org/10.1007/s10964-006-9099-5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wickrama, K. A. S., Lee, T. K., O'Neal, C. W., & Lorenz, F. O. (2016). Higher-order growth curves and mixture modeling with Mplus: A practical guide. New York, NY: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar