Abbott, B. & Badia, P. (1981) Observing as a function of the probability of shock and shock-free components. Paper presented at the meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Detroit. [PB]Google Scholar

Amsel, A. (1958) The role of frustrative nonreward in noncontinuous reward situations. Psychological Bulletin 55:102–19. [LEL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Amsel, A.(1968) secondary reinforcement and frustration. Psychological Bulletin 69:278. [LEL]Google Scholar

Arabian, J. M. & Desiderato, O. (1975) Preference for signaled shock: A test of two hypotheses. Animal Learning and Behavior 3:191–95. [PB]Google Scholar

Astley, S. L. & Perkins, C. C. (in preparation) The effects of context and stimulus duration on the conditioned reinforcing value of stimuli. [CCP]Google Scholar

Auge, R. J. (1974) Context, observing behavior, and conditioned reinforcement. journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 22:525–33. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Auge, R. J. (1977) Stimulus functions within a fixed-interval clock schedule: Reinforcement, punishment, and discriminative stimulus control. Animal Learning and Behavior 5:117–23. [taJAD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Autor, S. M. (1969) The strength of conditioned reinforcers as a function of frequency and probability of reinforcement. In: Conditioned reinforcement, ed. Hendry, D. P., pp. 127–62. Dorsey Press. [tarJAD]Google Scholar

Ayres, J. J. B. (1966) Conditioned suppression and the information hypothesis. journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 62:21–25. [JM]Google Scholar

Badia, P. & Culbertson, S. (1972) The relative aversiveness of signaled vs. unsignaled escapable and inescapable shock. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 17:462–71. [PB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Badia, P., Culbertson, S. & Lewis, P. (1971) The relative aversiveness of signaled vs. unsignaled avoidance. journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 16:113–21. [PB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Badia, P., Harsh, J. & Abbott, B. (1979) Choosing between predictable and unpredictable shock conditions: Data and theory. Psychological Bulletin 86:1107–31. [PB, HD, tarJAD]Google Scholar

Badia, P., Harsh, J., Coker, C. C. & Abbott, B. (1976) Choice and the dependability of stimuli that predict shock and safety. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 26: 95–111. [PB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Badia, P., Ryan, K. & Harsh, J. (1981) Choosing schedules of signaled appetitive events over schedules of unsignaled ones. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 35:187–95. ‘PB, rJAD’CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Baron, A. & Galizio, M. (1976) Clock control of human performance on avoidance and fixed-interval schedules. journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 26:165–80. ‘taJAD’CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Baum, W. M. & Rachlin, H. C. (1969) Choice as time allocation. journal the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 12:861–74. ‘taJAD’Google Scholar

Berlyne, D. E. (1957) Uncertainty and conflict: A point of contact between information-theory and behavior-theory concepts. Psychological Review 64:329–39. ‘taJAD’Google Scholar

Berlyne, D. E. (1960) Conflict, arousal, and curiosity. McGraw-Hill. ‘tarJAD, RRM’Google Scholar

Blanchard, R. (1975) The effect of S– on observing behavior. Learning and Motivation 6:1–10. ‘taJAD’Google Scholar

Bloonsfield, T. M. (1972) Reinforcement schedules: Contingency or contiguity? In: Reinforcement: Behavioral analysis, ed. Gilbert, R. M. & Millenson, J. B., pp. 165–208. Academic Press. ‘taJAD, RKRT’CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bolles, R. C. (1967) Theory of motivation. Harper & Bow. ‘LEL’Google Scholar

Bolles, R. C. (1979) Learning theory. Holt, Rinehart & Winston. ‘taJAD’Google Scholar

Bowe, C. A. & Dinsmoor, J. A. (1981) Temporal vs. spatial information as reinforcer of observing. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 17:33–36. ‘rJAD’Google Scholar

Bowe, C. A. & Dinsmoor, J. A. (1983) Spatial and temporal relations in conditioned reinforcement and observing behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 39:227–40. ‘rJAD’Google Scholar

Bower, C., McLean, J. & Meacham, J. (1966) value of knowing when reinforcement is due. journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 62:184–92. ‘rJAD, JAN’Google Scholar

Branch, M. N. (1970) The distribution of observing responses during two VI schedules. Psychonomic Science 20:5–6. ‘rJAD’Google Scholar

Branch, M. N. (1973) Observing responses in pigeons: Effects of schedule component duration and schedule value. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 20:417–28. ‘MNB, tarJAD, EF’Google Scholar

Browne, M. P. & Dinsmoor, J. A. (1972) Selective observing of discriminative stimuli. Proceedings of the 80th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association 7:745–46. (Summary) ‘taJAD’Google Scholar

Browne, M. P. & Dinsmoor, J. A. (1974) Wyckoffs observing response: Pigeons learn to observe stimuli for free food but not stimuli for extinction. Learning and Motivation 5:165–73. ‘PB, tarJAD’CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Browne, M. P., Wasserman, E. A. & Dinsmoor, J. A. (1971). Selective observing during auditory discrimination learning. Paper presented at meeting of the Psychonomic Society, St. Louis. ‘taJAD’Google Scholar

Bugelski, B. R. (1956). The psychology of learning. Holt. ‘LEL’Google Scholar

Case, D. A. & Fantino, E. (1981) The delay-reduction hypothesis of conditioned reinforcement and punishment: Observing behavior. journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 35:93–108. ‘rJAD, EF’Google Scholar

Collier, A. C. (1977) Preference for shock signals as a function of the temporal accuracy of the signals. Learning and Motivation 8:159–70. ‘PB’Google Scholar

Cronin, P. B. (1980) Reinstatement of postresponse stimuli prior to reward in delayed-reward discrimination learning by pigeons. Animal Learning and Behavior 8:352–58. ‘CCP’Google Scholar

D'Amato, M. R., Etkin, M. & Fazzaro, J. (1968) Cue-producing behavior the capuchin monkey during reversal, extinction, acquisition, and overtraining. journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 11:425–33, ‘MRD'A, rJAD’CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

D'Amato, M. R. & Safarjan, W. R. (1979) Preference for information about shock duration in rats. Animal Learning and Behavior 7:89–94. ‘MRD'A, rJAD’Google Scholar

Daniels, P. V. (1972) The reinforcing value of information. Doctoral dissertation, Columbia University. ‘rJAD, JAN’Google Scholar

Davis, H. & Levine, S. (1982) Predictability, control and the pituitary-adrenal response in rats. journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 96:393–404. ‘HD’Google Scholar

Davis, H. & Memmott, J. (1982) Counting behavior in animals: A critical evaluation. Psychological Bulletin 92:547–71. ‘HD’CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Davis, H. & Memmott, J. (1983) Autocontingencies: Rats count to three to predict safety from shock. Animal Learning and Behavior 11:95–100. ‘HD’Google Scholar

Davison, M. (1969) Preference for mixed-interval versus fixed-interval schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 12:247–52. ‘EF’Google Scholar

Dinsmoor, J. A. (1968) Escape from shock as a conditioning technique. In: Miami synsposium on the prediction of behavior, 1967: Aversive stimulation, ed. Jones, M. H., pp. 33–75. University of Miami Press. ‘rJAD’Google Scholar

Dinsmoor, J. A. (1970) Operant conditioning: An experimental analysis of behavior. William C. Brown Co. ‘rJAD’Google Scholar

Dinsmoor, J. A. (1973) A theory of discrimination learning. Proceedings of the 81st Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association 8:861–62. (Summary) [tarJAD]Google Scholar

Dinsmoor, J. A. (1977) Escape, avoidance, punishment: Where do we stand? Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 28:83–95. ‘rJAD’CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Dinsmoor, J. A. (1981) Some speculations concerning the role of observing and attention in establishing stimulus control. Presidential address, Midwestern Psychological Association, Detroit. ‘tarJAD’Google Scholar

Dinsmoor, J. A., Browne, M. P. & Lawrence, C. E. (1972) A test of the negative discriminative stimulus as a reinforcer of observing. journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 18:79–85. ‘tarJAD’Google Scholar

Dinsmoor, J. A., Browne, M. P., Lawrence, C. E. & Wasserman, E. A. (1971) A new analysis of Wyckoffs observing response. Proceedings of the 79th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association 6:679–80. (Summary) ‘taJAD, RRM’Google Scholar

Dinsmoor, J. A., Flint, C. A., Smith, R. F. & viemeister, N. F. (1969) Differential reinforcing effects of stimuli associated with the presence or absence of a schedule of punishment. In: Conditioned reinforcement. ed. Hendry, D. P., pp. 357–84. Dorsey Press. [PB, tarJAD]Google Scholar

Dinsmoor, J. A., Mueller, K. L., Martin, L. T. & Bowe, C. A. (1982) The acquisition of observing. journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 38:249–63. [taJAD, RRM]Google Scholar

Dinsmoor, J. A., Mulvaney, D. E. & Jwaideh, A. R. (1981) Conditioned reinforcement as a function of duration of stimulus, journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 36:41–49. [tarJAD]Google Scholar

Dinsmoor, J. A-, Sears, C. W. & Dout, D. L. (1976) Observing as a function of stimulus difference. journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 2:154–162. [PB, tarJAD]Google Scholar

Eckerman, D. A. (1973) Uncertainty reduction and conditioned reinforcement. Psychological Record 23:39–47. [PB, taJAD]Google Scholar

Egger, M. D. & Miller, N. E. (1962) Secondary reinforcement in rats as a function of information value and reliability of the stimulus. Journal of Experimental Psychology 64:97–104. [JM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Egger, M.D. (1963) When is a reward reinforcing? An experimental study of the information hypothesis. journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 56:132–37. [JM]Google Scholar

Fanselow, M. S. (1979) Naloxone attenuates rat's preference for signaled shock. Physiological Psychology 7:70–74. [rJAD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fanselow, M. S. (1980) Signaled shock-free periods and preference for signaled shock. journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 6:65–80. [rJAD, RRM]Google Scholar

Fanselow, M. S. (1981) Naloxone and Pavlovian fear conditioning. Learning and Motivation 12:398–419. [HD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fantino, E. (1967) Preference for mixed versus fixed-ratio schedules. journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 10:35–43. [EF]Google Scholar

Fanselow, M. S. (1969) Choice and rate of reinforcement.journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 12:723–30. [taJAD, JM, EFS]Google Scholar

Fanselow, M. S. (1977) Conditioned reinforcement: Choice and information. In: Handbook of operant behavior, ed, Honig, W. K. & StaddonK, J. E. B.. Prentice- Hall. [MNB, taJAD, EF, JM, JAN, CCP, RKRT]Google Scholar

Fanselow, M. S. (1981) Contiguity, response strength, and the delay-reduction hypothesis. In: Advances in analysis of behaviour, vol. 2, Predictability, correlation, and contiguity, ed. Harzem, P. & Zeiler, M. D., pp. 169–201. Wiley. [EF]Google Scholar

Fantino, E. & Case, D. A. (in press) Human observing: Maintained by stimuli correlated with reinforcement but not extinction. journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 40:193–210. [tarJAD]Google Scholar

Fantino, E., Case, D. A. & Altus, D. (in press) Observing reward-informative and uninformative stimuli by normal children of different ages. journal of Experimental Child Psychology. [tarJAD]Google Scholar

Fantino, E., Dunn, B. & Meck, W. (1979) Percentage reinforcement and choice. journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 32:335–40. [EF]Google Scholar

Fantino, E. & Logan, C. A. (1979) The experimental analysis of behavior: A biological perspective. Freeman, W. H.. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Gamzu, E. & Williams, D. R. (1973) Associative factors underlying the pigeon's key pecking in autoshaping procedures. journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 19:225–32. [JAN]Google Scholar

Garfield, S. L. & Kurtz, R. (1976) Clinical psychologists in the 1970s. American Psychologist 31:1–9. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Gibbon, J. (1981) The contingency problem in autoshaping. In: Autoshaping and conditioning theory, ed. Locurto, C. M., Terrace, H. S. & Gibbon, J., pp. 285–308. Academic Press. [rJAD]Google Scholar

Gibbon, J. & Balsam, P. (1981) Spreading association in time, In: Autoshaping and conditioning theory, ed. Locurto, C. M., Terrace, H. S. & Gibbon, J., pp. 219–53. Academic Press, [taJAD, JM, EFS]Google Scholar

Gibbon, J., Berryman, R. & Thompson, R. L. (1974) Contingency spaces and measures in classical and instrumental conditioning. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 21:585–605. [rJAD, JAN]Google Scholar

Gibson, J. J. (1979) The ecological approach to visual perception. Houghton Mifflin. [RKRT]Google Scholar

Godall, K. (1972) Shapers at work. Psychology Today 6 (6):53–62, 132–138. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Gormezano, J. & Coleman, S. R. (1973) The law of effect and CR contingent modification of the UCS. Conditional Reflex 8:41–56. [CCP]Google Scholar

Hancock, R. A. (1982) Tests of conditioned reinforcement value of sequential stimuli in pigeons. Animal Learning and Behavior 10:46–54. [CCP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Harsh, J. & Badia, P. (1974) A concurrent assessment of the positive and negative properties of a signaled shock schedule. Animal Learning and Behavior 2:169–72. [PB]Google Scholar

Harsh, J. & Badia, P. (1976) A temporal parameter influencing choice between signaled and unsigualed shock schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 25:327–33. [PB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hearst, E. & Franklin, S. R. (1977) Positive and negative relations between a signal and food: Approach-withdrawal behavior to the signal. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 3:37–52. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Hendry, D. P., ed. (1969 a) Conditioned reinforcement. Dorsey Press. [DPH]Google Scholar

Hendry, D. P. (1969 b) Introduction. In: Conditioned reinforcement, ed Hendry, D. P., pp. 1–33. Dorsey Press. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Heisdry, D. P. & Dillow, P. V. (1966) Observing behavior during interval schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 9:337–49. [MNB, taJAD]Google Scholar

Herrnstein, R. J. (1964 a) Aperiodicity as a factor in choice. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 7:179–82. [EF]Google Scholar

Herrnstein, R. J. (1964 b) Secondary reinforcement and rate of primary reinforcement. journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 7:27–36. [tarJAD]Google Scholar

Hershiser, D. & Trapold, M. A. (1971) Preference for unsignaled over signaled direct reinforcement in the rat. journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 77:323–28. [CCP]Google Scholar

Hirota, T. T. (1972) The Wyckoff observing response – a reappraisal. Journal of the Experisnental Analysis of Behavior 18:263–76. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Hovland, C. I. (1952) Clark Leonard Hull: 1884–1952. Psychological Review 59:347–50. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Hull, C. L. (1943) Principles of behavior: An introduction to behavior theory. Appleton-Century. [tarJADJ]Google Scholar

Hulse, S. H., Fowler, H. & Honig, W. K., eds. (1978) Cognitive processes in animal behavior. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [HD, taJAD, HST]Google Scholar

Hunter, W. S. (1913) The delayed reaction in animals. Behavior Monographs 2:6. [HST]Google Scholar

Hymowitz, N. (1979) Suppression of responding during signaled and unsignaled shock. Psychological Bulletin 86:175–90. [PB]Google Scholar

Imada, H., Mino, T., Sugioka, K. & Ohki, Y. (1981) Measurement of current flow through the rat under signaled and unsignaled grid-shock conditions. Animal Learning and Behavior 9:75–79. [HD]Google Scholar

Imada, H. & Nageishi, Y. (1982) The concept of uncertainty in animal experiments using aversive stimulation. Psychological Bulletin 91:573–88. [MRD'A, rJAD]Google Scholar

Jenkins, H. M., Barnes, B. A. & Barrera, F. J. (1981) Why autoshaping depends on trial spacing. In: Autosha ping and conditioning theory, ed. Locurto, C. M., Terrace, H. S. & Gibbon, J., pp. 255–84. Academic Press. [taJAD, JM]Google Scholar

Jenkins, H. M. & Boakes, R. A. (1973) Observing stimulus sources that signal food or no food. journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 20:197–207. [taJAD, JAN]Google Scholar

Jenkins, H. M. & Shattuck, D. (1981) Contingency in fear conditioning: A reexamination. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 17:159–62. [taJAD, EFS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Jwaideh, A. R. (1968) Stimulus functions in chained fixed-ratio schedules of reinforcement. Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Jwaideh, A. R. & Mulvaney, D. E. (1976) Punishment of observing by a stimulus associated with the lower of two reinforcement densities. Learning and Motivation 7:211–22. [tarJAD]Google Scholar

Katz, H. N. (1976) A test of the reinforcing properties of stimuli correlated with nonreinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 26:45–56. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Kelleher, R. T., Riddle, W. C. & Cook, L. (1962) Observing responses in pigeons. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 5:3–13. [MNB, rJAD]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Keller, F. S. & Schoenfeld, W. N. (1951) Principles of psychology. AppletonCentury-Crofts. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Kendall, S. B. (1972) Some effects of response-dependent clock stimuli in a fixed-interval schedule. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 17:161–68. [MNB, taJAD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kendall, S. B. (1973 a) Effects of two procedures for varying information transmission on observing responses. journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 20:73–83. [tarJAD]Google Scholar

Kendall, S. B. (1973 b) Redundant information in an observing-response procedure. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 19:81–92. [PB, rJAD]Google Scholar

Kendall, S. B. (1974). Maintenance of observing response with the less highly valued stimulus in pigeons. Animal Learning and Behavior 2:210–14. [rJAD, JM]Google Scholar

Kendall, S. B. & Gibson, D. A. (1965) Effects of discriminative stimulus removal on observing behavior. Psychological Record 15:545–51. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Killeen, P. (1968) On the measurement of reinforcement frequency in the study of preference. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 11:263–69. [EF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Killeen, P., Wald, B. & Cheney, C. D. (1980) Observing behavior and information. Psychological Record 30:181–90. [tarJAD]Google Scholar

Leahey, T. H. (1981) The revolution never happened: Information processing is behaviorism. Paper presented at the 52d annual meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association, New York. [HST]Google Scholar

Lewis, P. & Gardner, E. T. (1977) The reliability of preference for signaled shock. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 9:135–38. [PB]Google Scholar

Lieberman, D. A. (1972) Secondary reinforcement and information as determinants of observing behavior in monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Learning and Motivation 3:341–58. [taJAD, DPH, BKBT]CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lieberman, S. M. (1967) A study of secondary reinforcement. MA thesis, University of Southern California. [LEL]Google Scholar

Lipsey, M. W. (1974) Research and relevance: A survey of graduate students and faculty in psychology. American Psychologist 29:541–53. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Longstreth, L. E. (1964) An operational distinction between secondary reinforcement and frustration. American Psychologist 19:452 (abstract). [LEL]Google Scholar

Longstreth, L. E. (1966) Frustration and secondary reinforcement concepts as applied to human conditioning and extinction. Psychological Monographs 80:11, whole no. 619. [LEL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Longstreth, L. E. (1972) A cognitive interpretation of secondary reinforcement. In: Nebraska symposium on motivation, 1971, ed. Cole, J. K.. University of Nebraska Press. [LEL]Google Scholar

Lutz, R. E. & Perkins, C. C. Jr, (1960) A time variable in the acquisition of observing responses. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 53:180–82. [PB, tarJAD, EF]Google Scholar

Mackintosh, N. J. (1974) The psychology of animal learning. Academic Press. [taJAD, HST]Google Scholar

McMichael, J. S., Lanzetta, J. T. & Driscoll, J. (1967) Infrequent reward facilitates observing responses in rats. Psychonomic Science 8:23–24. [taJAD]Google Scholar

McMillan, J. C. (1974) Average uncertainty as a determinant of observing behavior. journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 22:401–8. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Maki, W. S. (1981) Directed forgetting in animals. In: Information processing in animals: Memory mechanisms, ed. Spear, N. E. & Miller, B. B., pp. 199–225. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [RKRT]Google Scholar

Maki, W. S., Gillund, C., Hauge, G. & Siders, W. (1977) Matching to sample after extinction of observing responses. journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 3:285–96. [RKRT]Google Scholar

Marlin, N. A., Berk, A. M. & Miller, R. R. (1978) Modification and avoidance of unmodiflable and unavoidable footshock. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 11:203–5. [RRM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Marlin, N. A.Sullivan, J. M., Berk, A. M. & Miller, R. R. (1979) Preference for information about intensity of signaled tailshock. Learning and Motivation 10:85–97. [MRD'A]CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Martin, G. & Pear, J. (1978) Behavior modification: What it is and how to do it. Prentice-Hall. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Mayer, D. J. & Price, D. D. (1976) Central nervous system mechanisms of analgesia. Pain 2:379–404. [rJAD]Google Scholar

Miller, G. A. (1981) Review of Perspectives in cognitive science, ed. Norman, D. A.. Science 214:57. [HST]Google Scholar

Miller, L. K. (1968) Escape from an effortful situation. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 11:619–27. [rJAD, MP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Miller, R. R., Greco, C. & Vigorito, M. (1981) Classically conditioned tail flexion in rats: CR-contingent modification of US intensity as a test of the preparatory response hypothesis. Animal Learning and Behavior 9:80–88. [CCP]Google Scholar

Miller, R. B., Creco, C., Vigorito, M. & Marlin, N. A. (1983) Signaled tailshock is perceived as similar to a stronger unsignaled tailshock: Implications for a functional analysis of classical conditioning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 9:105–31. [RRM]Google Scholar

Mowrer, O. H. (1960) Learning theory and the symbolic processes. Wiley. [RRM, CCP]Google Scholar

Mueller, K. L. & Dinsmoor, J. A. (1984) Testing the reinforcing properties of S–: A replication of Lieberman's procedure. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Mulvaney, D. E., Dinsmoor, J. A., Jwaideh, A. B. & Hughes, L. H. (1974) Punishment of observing by the negative discriminative stimulus. journal of the Experimental Analysis of Beharior 21:37–44. [tarJAD, RRM, MP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Mulvaney, D. E., Hughes, L. H., Jwaideh, A. H. & Dinsmoor, J. A. (1981) Differential production of positive and negative discriminative stimuli by normal and retarded children. journal of Experimental Child Psychology 32:389–400. [taJAD, RKRT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Murray, M. & Nevin, J. A. (1967) Some effects of correlation between response-contingent shock and reinforceimient. journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 10:301–9. [JAN]Google Scholar

Neisser, U. (1976) Cognition and reality. Freeman, W. H.. [HST]Google Scholar

Nevin, J. A. (1969) The maintenance of conditioned reinforcement. Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences 31:686–96. [JAN]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Nevin, J. A. (1973) Conditioned reinforcement. In: The study of behacior: Learning, motication, emotion, and instinct, ed. Nevin, J. A., pp. 155–98. Scott, Foresman. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Nevin, J. A. & Mandell, C. (1978) Conditioned reinforcement and choice. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 29:135–48. [JAN]Google Scholar

Pavlov, I. P. (1960) Conditioned reflexes. Translated by Anrep, C. V.. Dover. (Originally published 1927.) [taJAD, CCP]Google Scholar

Perkins, C. C. Jr, (1955) The stimulus conditions which follow learned responses. Psychological Renew 62:341–48. [HD, taJAD, RRM, CCP]Google Scholar

Perkins, C. C. (1968) An analysis of the concept of reinforcement. Psychological Review 75:155–72. [HD, taJAD, RRM, CCP]Google Scholar

Perkins, C. C. (1971) Reinforcement in classical conditioning. In: Essays in neobehaciorism: A memorial colume to Kenneth W. Spence, ed. Kendler, H. H. & Spence, J. T., pp. 113–36. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [HD, taJAD, CCP]Google Scholar

(in press) The analysis of performance. In: Advances in analysis of behavior, vol. 3, Biological factors in learning, ed. Zeiler, M. D. & Harzem, P.. Wiley. [CCP]Google Scholar

Perkins, C. C. Jr, Seymann, R. C., Levis, D. J. & Spencer, H. H. Jr. (1966) Factors affecting preference for signal-shock over shock-signal. journal of Experimental Psychology 72:190–96. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Perone, M. & Baron, A. (1980) Reinforcement of human observing behavior by a stimulus correlated with extinction or increased effort. journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 34:239–61. [tarJAD, JM, MP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Powell, D. R. & Perkins, C. C. (1957) Strength of secondary reinforcement as a determiner of the effects of duration of the goal response on learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology 53:106–12. [CCP]Google Scholar

Premack, D. & Collier, G. (1966) Duration of looking and number of brief looks as dependent variables. Psychonoinic Science 4:81–82. [rJAD]Google Scholar

Prokasy, W. F. Jr. (1956) The acquisition of observing responses in the absence of differential external reinforcement. Journal of Coin parative and Physiological Psychology 49:131–34. [tarJAD, DPH, LEL, JAN]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Raehlin, H. (1976) Behavior and learning. Freeman, W. H.. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Rand, J. F. (1977) Behaviors observed during S– in a simple discrimination learning task. Journal of the Erperi mental Analysis of Behavior 27:103–17. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Rescorla, R. A. (1966) Predictability and number of pairings in Pavlovian fear conditioning. Psychonomic Science 4:383–84. [JAN]Google Scholar

Rescorla, R. A. (1968) Probability of shock in the presence and absence of CS in fear conditioning. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 66:1–5. [LJM]Google Scholar

Rilling, M., Kramer, T. J. & Richards, R. W. (1973) Aversive properties of the negative stimulus during learning with and without errors. Learning and Motivation 4:1–10. [MP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Roitblat, H. L. (1980) Codes and coding processes in pigeon short-term memory. Animal Learning and Behavior 8:341–51. [HST]CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Roitblat, H. L. (1982) The meaning of representation in animal memory. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 5:353–406. [MNB, HST]Google Scholar

Roitblat, H. L., Bever, T. C. & Terrace, H. S., eds. (1983, in press) Animal cognition. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [MRD'A]Google Scholar

Ruja, H. (1956) Productive psychologists. American Psychologist 11:148/-49. [taJAD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Safarjan, W. R. & D'Amato, M. R. (1978) variables affecting preference for signaled shock in a symmetrical changeover design. Learning and Motication 9:314–31. [PB]Google Scholar

Saltzman, I. J. (1949) Maze learning in the absence of primary reinforcement: A study of secondary reinforcement. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 42:161–73. [LEL]Google Scholar

Sands, S. F. & Wright, A. A. (1980) Serial probe recognition performance by a rhesus money amid a human with 10- and 20-item lists. journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 6:386–96. [HST]Google Scholar

Schaub, R. E. (1969) Response-cue contingency and cue effectiveness. In: Conditioned reinforcement, ed. Hendry, D. P., pp. 342–56. Dorsey Press. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Schaub, B. E. & Honig, W. K. (1967) Reinforcement of behavior with cues correlated with extinction. Psychononuic Science 7:15–16. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Schrier, A.M., Thompson, C. R. & Spector, N. R. (1980) Observing behavior in monkeys (Macaca arctoides): Support for the information hypothesis. Learning and Motivation 11:355–65. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Schrier, A. M. & Wing, T. C. (1973) Eye movements of monkeys during brightness discrimination and discrimination reversal. Animal Learning and Behavior 1:145–50. [rJAD]Google Scholar

Seligman, M. E. P. (1966) CS redundancy and secondary punishment. journal of Experimental Psychology 72:546–50. [JM]Google Scholar

Seligman, M. E. P. (1968) Chronic fear produced by unpredictable shock. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 66:402–11. [RRM]Google Scholar

Shannon, C. E. & Weaver, V. (1949) The mathematical theory of communication. University of Illinois Press. [IaJAD]Google Scholar

Sheffield, F. D. (1965) Relation between classical conditioning and instrumental learning. In: Classical conditioning: A symposium, ed. Prokasy, W. F.. Appleton-Cemstury-Crofts. [CCP]Google Scholar

Skinner, B. F. (1938) The behavior of organisms. Appleton- Century. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Skinner, B. F. (1950) Are theories of learning necessary? Psychological Review 57:193–216. [tarjAD]Google Scholar

Skinner, B. F. (1953) Science and human behavior. Macmillan. [taJAD, HST]Google Scholar

Skinner, B. F. (1957) Verbal behavior. Prentice-Hall. [MP]Google Scholar

Skinner, B. F. (1977) Why I am not a cognitive psychologist. Behaviorism 5:1–10. [HST]Google Scholar

Spence, K. W. (1936) The nature of discrimination learning in animals. Psychological Review 43:427–49. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Spence, K. W. (1940) Continuous versus non-continuous interpretations of discrimination learning. Psychological Review 47:271–88. [tarJAD]Google Scholar

Spence, K. W. (1947) The role of secondary reinforcement in delayed reward learning. Psychological Review 54:1–14. [CCP]Google Scholar

Spence, K. W. (1952) Clark Leonard Hull: 1884–1952. American Journal of Psychology 65:639–46. [tajAD]Google Scholar

Squires, N., Norborg, J. & Fantino, E. (1975) Second-order schedules: Discrimination of components. journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 24:157–71. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Steiner, J. (1970) Observing responses and uncertainty reduction: II. The effect of varying the probability of reinforcement. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 22:592–99. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Straub, R. O. & Terrace, H. S. (1981) Ceneralization of serial learning in the pigeon. Animal Learning and Behavior 9:454–68. [HST]Google Scholar

Terrace, H. S. (1983a) Animal cognition. In: Animal cognition, ed. Roitblat, H. L., Bever, T. C. & Terrace, H. S.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, in press. [HST]Google Scholar

Terrace, H. S. (1983b) Simultaneous chaining: The problem it poses for traditional chaining theory. In: Quantitative analyses of behavior: Acquisition, ed. Commons, M. L., Herrnstein, R. J. & Wagner, A. R.. Ballinger, in press. [HST]Google Scholar

Thomas, D. R., Berman, D. L., Serednesky, C. E. & Lyons, J. (1968) Information value amid stimulus configuring as factors in conditioned reinforcement. Journal of Experimental Psychology 76:181–89. [JM]Google Scholar

Thompson, D. M. (1964) Escape from S^D associated with fixed-ratio reinforcement. Journal of time Experimental Analysis of Behavior 7:1–8. [MP]Google Scholar

Thompson, R. K. R. & Herman, L. M. (1981) Auditory delayed discriminations by the dolphin: Nonequivalence with delayed-matching performance. Animal Learning and Behavior 9:9–15. [RKRT]Google Scholar

Tolman, E. C. (1959) Principles of purposive behavior. In: Psychology: A study of a science, ed. Koch, S., pp. 92–157. McCraw-Hill. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Turner, M. B. (1971) Realism and the exploitation of behavior. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [EFS]Google Scholar

Ullmann, L. P. & Krasner, L., eds. (1965) Case studies in behavior modification. Holt, Rinehart & Winston. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Wald, B. A. & Dukich, T. D. (1978) Observing behavior: Redundant stimuli and time since information. Animal Learning and Behavior 6:380–84. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Wasserman, E. A. (1981) Comparative psychology returmis: A review of Hulse, Fowler, and Honig's Cognitive processes in animal behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 35:243–57. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Wasserman, E. A., Franklin, S. B. & Hearst, E. (1974) Pavloviami appetitive contingencies and approach versus withdrawal to conditioned stimuli in pigeons. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 86:616–27. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Weiss, J. M. (1970) Somatic effects of predictable and unpredictable shock. Psychosomatic Medicine 32:397–408. [HD]Google Scholar

Wilton, R. N. & Clements, R.O. (1971) The role of information in the emission of observing responses: A test of two hypotheses. journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 16:161–66. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Winter, J. & Perkins, C. C. (1982) Ceneralization amid backchaining of conditioned reinforcement in delayed reward learning by pigeons. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 38:169–79. [CCP]Google Scholar

Wright, A. A., Santiago, H. C., Sands, S. F. & Urcuioli, P. J. (1983) Monkey and pigeon serial probe recognition performance: Effects of item pool size on proactive interference and item-specific associations. In: Animal cognition, ed. Roitbiat, H. L., Bever, T. C. & Terrace, H. S.. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, in press. [HST]Google Scholar

Wright, C. D. (1970) A further note on ranking the important psychologists. American Psychologist 25:650–51. [taJAD]Google Scholar

Wyckoff, L. B. Jr. (1952) The role of observing responses in discrimination learning. Part 1. Psychological Review 59:431–42. [taJAD, HST]Google Scholar

Wyckoff, L. B. (1959) Toward a quantitative theory of secondary reinforcement. Psychological Review 66:68–78. [tarJAD, LEL]Google Scholar

Wyckoff, L. B. (1969) The role of observing responses in discrimination learning. In: Conditioned reinforcement. ed. Hendry, D. P., pp. 237–60. Dorsey Press. [taJAD]Google Scholar