Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-g8jcs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T12:10:59.717Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Problems and pitfalls for Killeen's mathematical principles of reinforcement

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

Joseph J. Pear
Joseph J. Pear
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, CanadaR3T 2N2 Electronic mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Open Peer Commentary
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 17 , Issue 1 , March 1994 , pp. 146 - 147
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1994

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allen, J. D. & Kenshalo, D. R. J. (1976) Schedule-induced drinking as a function of interreinforcement interval in the rhesus monkey. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 26:257–67. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anger, D. (1956) The dependence of interresponse times upon the relative reinforcement of different interresponse times. Journal of Experimental Psychology 52:145–61. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Annable, A. & Weardeu, J. H. (1979) Grooming movements as operants in the rat. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 32:297–304. [JHW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arbuckle, J. L. & Lattal, K. A. (1988) Changes in functional response units with briefly delayed reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 49:249–63. [aPRK. KAL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Atkinson, R. C. & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968) Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In: The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory, ed. Spence, K. W. & Spence, J. T.. Academic Press. [CPS]Google Scholar
Atkinson, R. C. & Wickens, T. D. (1971) Human memory and the concept of reinforcement. In: The nature of reinforcement, ed. Glaser, R.. Academic Press. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Baer, D. M. (1981) The imposition of structure on behavior and the demolition of behavioral structure. In: Nebraska symposium on motivation, 1981: Response structure and organization, ed. Bernstein, D. J.. University of Nebraska Press. [RLS]Google Scholar
Barofsky, I. & Hurwitz, D. (1968) Within ratio responding during fixed ratio performance. Psychonomic Science 11:263–64. [aPRK, DWS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barrett, J. E. (1986) Behavioral history: Residual influences on subsequent behavior and drug effects. In: Developmental behavioral pharmacology. Vol. V: Advances in behavioral pharmacology, ed. Krasnegor, N. & Gray, D. B.. Erlbanm. [KAL]Google Scholar
Baum, W. M. (1973) The correlation-based law of effect. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 20:137–53. [aPRK, PR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baum, W. M. (1974) On two types of deviation from the matching law: Bias and undermatching. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 22:231–42. [rPRK, JJP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baum, W. M. (1979) Matching, uudermatching, and overmatching in studies of choice. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 32:269–81. [JJP]Google ScholarPubMed
Baum, W. M. (1992) In search of the feedback function for variable-interval schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 57:365–75. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beer, H. D. (1990) Intelligence as adaptive behavior: An experiment in computational neuroethology. Academic Press. [WT]Google Scholar
Bharucha-Reid, A. T. (1960) Elements of the theory of Markov processes and their applications. McGraw-Hill. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Bock, G. R. & Marsh, J. (1993) Experimental and theoretical studies of consciousness. Ciba Foundation Symposium 174. Wiley Interscience. [HR]Google Scholar
Boe, E. E. & Church, R. M. (1967) Permanent effects of punishment during extinetion. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 63:486–92. [SFW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bolles, R. C. (1970) Species-specific defense reactions and avoidance learning. Psychological Review 71:32–48. [rPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bolles, R. C. (1983) The explanation of behavior. The Psychological Record 33:31–48. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bolles, R. C. (1989) Acquired behavior: Aversive behavior. In: Ethoexperimental analysis of behavior, ed. Brain, P. F., Blanchard, R. J. & Parmigiani, S.. Parmigiani. [RGB]Google Scholar
Bradshaw, C. M. & Szabadi, E. (1988) Quantitative analysis of human operant behaviour. In: Human opcrant behavior and behavior modification, ed. Davoy, G. C. L. & Cullen, C.. Wiley. [CMB]Google Scholar
Bradshaw, C. M. & Szabadi, E. (1989) Central neurotransmitter systems and the control of operant behaviour by “natural” positive reinforcers. In: The neuropharmacological basis of reward, ed. Liebman, J. H. & Cooper, S. J.. Oxford University Press. [CMB]Google Scholar
Bradshaw, C. M., Szabadi, E. & Sevan, P. (1978) Relationship between response rate and reinforcement frequency in variable-interval schedules: The eflect of the concentration of suerose reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 29:447–52. [CMB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Branch, M. N. (1977) On the role of “memory” in the analysis of behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 28:171–79. [aPRK, KAL, JJP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breland, K. & Breland, M. (1961) The misbehavior of organisms. American Psychologist 16:681–84. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brooks, L. R. (1987) Decentralized control of categorization: The role of prior processing episodes. In: Concepts and conceptual development: Ecological and intellectual factors in categorization, ed. Neisser, U.. Erlbaum. [MDK]Google Scholar
Brown, J. A. (1958) Some tests of the decay theory of immediate memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 2:34–39. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Brush, S. G. (1989) Prediction and theory evaluation: The case of light bending. Science 246:1124. [rPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Capaldi, E. J. (1992) Levels of organized behavior in rats. In: Cognitive aspects of stimulus control, ed. Honig, W. K. & Fetterman, J. G.. Erlbaum. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Catania, A. C. (1969) On the vocabulary and grammar of behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 12:845–46. [KAL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Catania, A. C. (1971) Reinforcement schedules: The role of responses preceding the one that produces the reinforcer. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 15:271–87. [aPRK, JJP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Catania, A. C. & Cutts, D. (1963) Experimental control of superstitious responding in humans. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 6:203–8. [JJP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Catania, A. C. & Keller, K. J. (1981) Contingency, contiguity, correlation, and the concept of causation. In: Advances in analysis of behaviour: Predictability, correlation, and contiguity, ed. Harzem, P. & Zeiler, M. D.. Wiley. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Catania, A. C., Matthews, B. A. & Shimoff, E. (1982) Instructed versus shaped human verbal behavior: Interactions with nonverbal responding. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 38:233–48. [FS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Catania, A. C. & Reynolds, G. S. (1968) A quantitative analysis of the responding maintained by interval schedules of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 11:327–83. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Catania, A. C., Sagvolden, T. & Keller, K. J. (1988) Reinforcement schedules: Retroactive and proactive effects of reinforcers inserted into fixed-interval performances. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 49:49–73. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, A. J. (1933) The model of action of dntgs on cells. Edward Arnold. [CMB]Google Scholar
Clark, C. W. (1976) Mathematical bioeconomics: The optimal management of renewable resources. Wiley. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Coleman, S. (1984) Background and change in B. F. Skinner's metatheory from 1930 to 1938. Journal of Mind and Behavior 5:471–500. [JWD]Google Scholar
Collier, G., Johnson, D. & Morgan, C. (1992) The magnitude-of-reinforcement function in closed and open economies. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 57:81–89. [aPKK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cronk, L. (1993) Parental favoritism toward daughters. American Scientist 81:272–79. [rPRK]Google Scholar
Cuthill, I. C., Kacelnik, A., Krebs, J. R., Haccou, P. & Iwasa, Y. (1990) Starlings exploiting patches: The effect of recent experience on foraging decisions. Animal Behaviour 40:625–40. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, D. G. S., Staddon, J. E. R., Machado, A. & Palmer, R. G. (1993) The process of recurrent choice. Psychological Review 100:320–41. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, E. R. & Platt, J. R. (1983) Contiguity and contingency in the acquisition and maintenance of an operant. Learning & Motivation 14:487–512. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, H. & Pérusse, R. (1988) Numerical competence in animals: Definitional issues, current evidence, and a new research agenda. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 11:561–79. [SFW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davison, M. & Jenkins, P. E. (1985) Stimulus discriminability, contingency discriminability, and schedule performance. Animal Learning & Behavior 13:77–84. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davison, M. & McCarthy, D. (1988) The matching law: A research review. Erlbaum. [rPRK]Google Scholar
Deadwyler, S. A. (1985) A physiological basis for hippocampal involvement in coding temporally discontiguous events. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 8:500–501. [aPHK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Denny, M. R. (1991) Relaxation/relief: The effects of removing, postponing, or terminating aversive stimuli. In: Fear, avoidance and phobias, ed. Denny, M. R.. Erlbaum. [rPRK]Google Scholar
Deutsch, D. & Deutsch, J. A. (1975) Short-term memory. Academic Press. [aPRK]Google Scholar
de Villiers, P. A. (1977) Choice in concurrent schedules and a quantitative formulation of the law of effect. In: Handbook of operant behavior, ed. Honig, W. K. & Staddon, J. E. R.. Prentice-Hall. [CMB]Google Scholar
Dickinson, A. (1985) Actions and habits: The development of behavioural autonomy. Proceedings of the Royal Society, B 308:67–78. [SFW]Google Scholar
Donahoe, J. W., Crowley, M. A., Millard, W. J. & Stickney, K. A. (1982) A unified principle of reinforcement. In: Quantitative analysis of behavior II: Matching and maximizing accounts, ed. Commons, M. L., Herrnstein, R. J. & Rachlin, H.. Ballinger. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Donahoe, J. W. & Palmer, D. C. (1993) Learning and its implications for complex behavior. Allyn & Bacon. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Dougan, J. D. & McSweeney, F. K. (1985) Variations in Herrnstein's ro as a function of alternative reinforcement rate. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 43:215–23. [rPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Einstein, A. (1930) Cited in Pais A. (1982) “Subtle is the Lord …”. The science and life of Albert Einstein, Clarendon Press. [rPRK]Google Scholar
Eldridge, G. D., Pear, J. J., Torgrud, L. J. & Evers, B. H. (1988) Effects of prior response-contingent reinforcement on superstitious behavior. Animal Learning and Behavior 16:277–84. [JJP]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eriksen, C. W., Webb, J. M. & Fournier, L. R. (1990) How much processing do nonattended stimuli receive? Apparently very little, but… Perception and Psychophysics 47:477–48. [FS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Estes, W. K. (1950) Toward a statistical theory of learning. Psychological Review 57:94–107. [SJH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ettinger, R. H., Reid, A. K. & Staddon, J. E. R. (1987) Sensitivity to molar feedback functions: A test of molar optimality theory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 13:366–75. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Fantino, E. & Abarca, N. (1985) Choice, optimal foraging, and the delayreduction hypothesis. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 8:315–62. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferster, C. B. & Skinner, B. F. (1957) Schedules of reinforcement. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [JWD]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feynman, R. (1965) The character of physical law. MIT Press. [rPRK]Google Scholar
Fischer, P. & Smith, W. R. (1985) Chaos, fractals and dynamics. Lecture Notes in Pure and Applied Mathematics, No. 98. Marcel Dekker. [RAMG]Google Scholar
Fodor, J. (1989) Personal communication. Princeton N. J. [SJH]Google Scholar
Fountain, S. B. (1990) Rule abstraction, item memory, and chunking in rat serial-pattern tracking. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 16:96–105. [GG]Google ScholarPubMed
Freeman, T. J. & Lattal, K. A. (1992) Stimulus control of behavioral history. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 57:5–15. [KAL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galbicka, G. (1988) Differentiating the behavior of organisms. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 50:343–54. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galbicka, G., Kautz, M. A. & Jagers, T. (1993) Response acquisition under targeted percentile schedules: A continuing quandary for molar models of operant behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 60:171–84. [GG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galbicka, G. & Platt, J. R. (1986) Parametric manipulation of interresponsetime contingency independent of reinforcement rate. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 12:371–80. [aPRK, GG]Google ScholarPubMed
Gallistel, C. R. (1990) The organization of learning. MIT Press. [WT, SFW]Google Scholar
Gibbon, J. (1977) Scalar expectancy and Weber's law in animal timing. Psychological Review 84:279–325. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibbon, J. & Balsam, P. (1981) Spreading association in time. In: Autoshaping and conditioning theory, ed. Gibbon, J., Locurto, C. M. & Terrace, H. S.. Academic Press. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Grant, D. S. & Spetch, M. L. (1991) Pigeons' memory for event duration: Differences between choice and successive matching tasks. Learning and Motivation 22:180–99. [DMW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenwood, M. R. C., Quartermain, D., Johnson, P. R., Cruce, J. A. F. & Hirsch, J. (1974) Food-motivated behavior in genetically obese and hypothalamic-hyperphagic rats and mice. Physiology & Behavior 13:687–92. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregson, R. A. M. (1993) Learning in the context of nonlinear psychophysics: The gamma zak embedding. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology 46:31–48. [RAMG]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grossberg, S. (1975) A neural model of attention, reinforcement, and discrimination learning. International Review of Neurobiology 18:263–327. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guthrie, E. R. (1959) Association by contiguity. In: Psychology: A study of science, ed. Koch, S.. McGraw-Hill. [CPS]Google Scholar
Hackenberg, T. D. & Axtell, S. A. M. (1993) Humans' choices in situations of time-based diminishing returns. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 59:445–70. [rPRK, HR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamilton, A. L., Stellar, J. R. & Hart, E. B. (1985) Reward, performance, and the response strength method in self-stimulating rats: Validation and neuroleptics. Physiology and Behavior 35:897–904. [aPRK, CMB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamilton, W. D. (1964) The evolution of social behavior. Journal of Theoretical Biology 31:1–52. [JWD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanson, S. J. (1991) Behavioral diversity, search and stochastic connectionist systems. In: Quantitative analysis of behavior: Neural network models of conditioning and action, ed. Commons, M. L., Grossberg, S. & Staddon, J. E. R.. Erlbaum. [rPRK]Google Scholar
Hanson, S. J. & Burr, D. J. (1990) What connectionist models learn: Learning and representation in connectionist networks. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 13(3):471–518. [SJH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hardy, G. H., Littlewood, J. E. & Polya, G. (1959) Inequalities. Cambridge University Press. [rPRK]Google Scholar
Hayes, N. A. & Broadbent, D. E. (1988) Two modes of learning for interactive tasks. Cognition 28:249–76. [FS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayes, S. C., Brownstein, A. J., Zettle, R. D., Rosenfarb, I. & Korn, Z. (1986) Rule-governed behavior and sensitivity to changing consequences of responding. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 45:237–56. [FS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayes, S. C. & Hayes, L. J. (1992) Verbal relations and the evolution of behavior analysis. American Psychologist 11:1183–1395. [aPRK, FS]Google Scholar
Healy, A. F., Kosslyn, S. M. & Shiffrin, R. M. (1992) From learning theory to connectionist theory: Essays in honor of William K. Estes. Erlbaum. [rPRK]Google Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. (1969) Method and theory in the study of avoidance. Psychological Review 76:46–69. [SFW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. (1970) On the law of effect. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 13:243–66. [aPRK, CMB, JJP, HR, WT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herrnstein, R. J. (1974) Formal properties of the matching law. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 21:159–64. [aPRK, CMB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herrnstein, R. J. (1979) Derivatives of matching. Psychological Review 86:486–95. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J. & Hineline, P. N. (1966) Negative reinforcement as shock frequency reduction. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 9:421–30. [SFW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hestenes, D. (1992) Modeling games in the Newtonian world. American Journal of Physics 60:732–48. [rPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heyman, G. M. (1983) A parametric evaluation of the hedonic and motoric effects of drugs: Pimozide and amphetamine. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 40:113–22. [CMB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heyman, G. M. & Monaghan, M. M. (1987) Effects of changes in response requirement and deprivation on the parameters of the matching law equation: New data and review. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 13:384–94. [aPRK, CMB]Google Scholar
Heyman, G. M., Monaghan, M. M. & Clody, D. E. (1987) Low doses of cisflupenthixol attenuate motor performance. Psychopharmacology 93:477–82. [CMB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hineline, P. H. (1976) Negative reinforcement without shock reduction. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 14:259–68. [rPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hineline, P. N. & Wanchisen, B. A. (1989) Correlated hypothesizing and the distinction between contingency-shaped and rule-governed behavior. In: Rule-governed behavior: Cognition, contingencies, and instrtictional control, ed. Hayes, S.. Plenum Press. [FS]Google Scholar
Hintzman, D. L. (1986) “Schema abstraction” in a multiple-trace memory model. Psychological Review 93:411–28. [rPRK, MDK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hintzman, D. L. (1988) Judgements of frequency and recognition memory in a multiple-trace memory model. Psychological Review 95:528–51. [MDK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Honig, W. K. (1978) Studies of working memory in the pigeon. In: Cognitive processes in animal behavior, ed. Hulse, S. H., Fowler, H. & Honig, W. K.. Erlbaum. [DMW]Google Scholar
Hull, C. L. (1934) The concept of habit-family hierarchy and maze learning. Psychological Review 41:33–54, 134–52. [SFW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hull, C. L. (1943) Principles of behavior. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [rPRK, SJH, CPS, WT, SFW, JHW]Google Scholar
Hull, C. L. (1952) A behavior system. Yale University Press. [SFW]Google Scholar
Huntley, H. D. (1958) Dimensional analysis. Dover Press. [DWS]Google Scholar
Isaaeson, E. D. & Isaaeson, M. D. (1975) Dimensional methods in engineering and physics. Edward Arnold. [DWS]Google Scholar
Jacoby, L. L. & Brooks, L. R. (1984) Nonanalytic cognition: Memory, perception, and concept formation. In: The psychology of learning and motivation, vol. 18, ed. Bower, G. H.. Academic Press. [MDK]Google Scholar
Jacoby, L. L., Lindsay, D. S. & Toth, J. P. (1992) Unconscious influences revealed. Attention, awareness, and control. American Psychologist 47:802–9. [FS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacoby, L. L., Toth, J. P. & Yonelinas, A. (1993) Separating conscious and unconscious influences of memory: Measuring recollection. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 122:139–54. [CPS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jarrad, L. E. (1985) On the hippocampus, time, and interference. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 8:503–4. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kacelnik, A., Krebs, J. R. & Ens, B. (1987) Foraging in a changing environment: An experiment with starlings (Stumus vulgaris). In: Quantitative analyses of behavior VI: Foraging, ed. Commons, M. L., Kacelnik, A. & Shettleworth, S. J.. Erlbaum. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Kapitaniak, T. (1990) Chaos in systems with noise, 2nd ed.World Scientific. [RAMC]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karpieke, J., Christoph, G., Peterson, G. & Hearst, E. (1977) Signal location and positive versus negative conditioned suppression in the rat. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 3:105–18. [MDK]Google Scholar
Kelsey, J. E. & Allison, J. (1976) Fixed-ratio lever pressing by VMH rats: Work vs. accessibility of sucrose reward. Physiology & Behavior 17:749–54. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Killeen, P. R. (1969) Reinforcement frequency and contingency as factors in fixed-ratio behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 12:391–95. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Killeen, P. R. (1981a) Averaging theory. In: Recent developments in the quantification of steady-state operant behavior, ed. Bradshaw, C. M., Szabadi, E. & Lowe, C. F.. Elsevier. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Killeen, P. R. (1981b) Learning as causal inference. In: Quantitative analyses of behavior: Discriminative properties of reinforcement schedules, ed. Commons, M. L. & Nevin, J. A.. Pergamon Press. [KAL]Google Scholar
Killeen, P. R. (1982) Incentive theory. In: Nebraska symposium on motivation, 1981: Response structure and organization, ed. Bernstein, D. J.. University of Nebraska Press. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Killeen, P. R. (1984) Incentive theory III: Adaptive clocks. In: Timing and time perception, ed. Gibbon, J. & Allen, L.. New York Academy of Sciences. [arPRK]Google Scholar
Killeen, P. R. (1985) Incentive theory IV: Magnitude of reward. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 43:407–17. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Killeen, P. R. (1987) Emergent behaviorism. In: B. F. Skinner: Consensus and controversy, ed. Modgil, S. & Modgil, C.. Falmer. [rPRK]Google Scholar
Killeen, P. R. (1988) The reflex reserve. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 50:319–31. [rPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Killeen, P. R. (1991) Behavior's time. In: The psychology of learning and motivation, ed. Bower, G. H.. Academic Press. [arPRK]Google Scholar
Killeen, P. R. (1992) Mechanics of the animate. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 57:429–63. [arPRK, RAMG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Killeen, P. R. & Fetterman, J. G. (1988) A behavioral theory of timing. Psychological Review 95:274–95. [rPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Killeen, P. R., Hanson, S. J. & Osborne, S. R. (1978) Arousal: Its genesis and manifestation as response rate. Psychological Review 85:571–81. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Killeen, P. R. & Smith, J. P. (1984) Perception of contingency in conditioning: Scalar timing, response bias, and the erasure of memory by reinforcement. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 10:333–45. [arPRK]Google Scholar
Kintsch, W. (1965) Frequency distribution of interresponse times during VI and VR reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 8:347–52. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kraemer, P. J., Mazmanian, D. S. & Roberts, W. A. (1985) The choose-short effect in pigeon memory for stimulus duration: Subjective shortening versus coding models. Animal Learning & Behavior 13:349–54. [rPRK, DMW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kraemer, P. J. & Roper, K. L. (1992) Matching-to-sample performance by pigeons trained with visual-duration compound samples. Animal Learning & Behavior 20:33–40. [rPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frank, M. D. (1992) Alcohol outcome expectancies have selective effects on alcohol self-administration. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 16(2):396. [MDK]Google Scholar
Fruse, J. M., Overmier, J. B., Konz, W. A. & Rokke, E. (1983) Pavlovian conditioned stimulus effects upon instrumental choice behavior are reinforcer specific. Learning and Motivation 14:165–81. [MDK]Google Scholar
Lakatos, I. (1978) Falsification and the methodology of scientific research programs. In: The methodology of scientific research programs: Imre Lakatos philosophical papers, ed. Worrall, J. & Currie, G.. Cambridge University Press. [rPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lattal, K. A. (1975) Reinforcement contingencies as discriminative stimuli. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 23:241–46. [KAL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lattal, K. A. (1979) Reinforcement contingencies as discriminative stimuli: II. Effects of changes in stimulus probability. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 31:15–22. [KAL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lattal, K. A. & Gleeson, S. (1990) Response acquisition with delayed reinforcement. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 16:27–39. [aPRK]Google ScholarPubMed
Landan, L. (1977) Progress and its problems. University of California Press. [rPRK]Google Scholar
Levine, D. (1991) Introduction to neural and cognitive modeling. Erbaum. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Lieberman, D. A., Davidson, F. H. & Thomas, G. V. (1985) Making in pigeons: The role of memory in delayed reinforcement. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 11:611–24. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Logan, J. D. (1987) Applied mathematics: A contemporary approach. Wiley. [DWS]Google Scholar
Logue, A. W., Chavarro, A., Rachlin, H. & Reeder, R. W. (1988) Impulsiveness in pigeons living in the experimental chamber. Animal Learning and Behavior 16:31–40. [HR]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lowe, C. F. (1979) Determinants of human operant behaviour. In: Advances in analysis of behaviour. Vol. 1: Reinforcement and the organization of behaviour, ed. Zeiler, M. D. & Harzem, P.. Wiley. [FS]Google Scholar
Lubinski, D. & Thompson, T. (1993) Species and individual differences in communication based on private states. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 16(4):627–80. [HD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyttkan, E. (1963) Statistics of regression coefficients in the case of autocorrelated residuals. In: Time series analysis, ed. Rosenblatt, M.. Wiley. [RAMG]Google Scholar
Marr, M. J. (1979) Second-order schedules of reinforcement and the generation of unitary response sequences. In: Advances in analysis of behaviour. Vol. 1: Reinforcement and the organization of behaviour, ed. Zeiler, M. D. & Harzem, P.. Wiley. [PR]Google Scholar
Mazur, J. E. (1982) A molecular approach to ratio schedule performance. In: Quantitative analyses of behavior. Vol. 2: Matching and maximizing accounts, ed. Commons, M. L., Herrnstein, R. J. & Rachlin, H.. Ballinger. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Mazur, J. E. (1983) Steady-state performance on fixed-, mixed-, and random-ratio schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 39:293–307. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mazur, J. E. (1984) Tests of an equivalence rule for fixed and variable delays. Journals of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 10:426–36. [aPRK]Google Scholar
McDowell, J. J. (1980) An analytical comparison of Herrnstein's equations and a multivariate rate equation. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 33:397–408. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDowell, J. J., Bass, R. & Kessel, R. (1992) Applying linear systems analysis to dynamic behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 57:377–91. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDowell, J. J. & Kessel, R. (1979) A multivariate rate equation for variableinterval performance. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 31:267–83. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDowell, J. J. & Wixted, J. T. (1986) Variable-ratio schedules as variableinterval schedules with linear feedback loops. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 46:315–29. [arPRK, JHW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDowell, J. J. & Wood, H. (1984) Confirmation of linear system theory prediction: Changes in Herrnstein's k as a function of changes in reinforcer magnitude. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 41:183–92. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McNamara, J. M. & Houston, A. I. (1987) Memory and the efficient use of information. Journal of Theoretical Biology 125:385–95. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McSweeney, F. K. (1974) Variability of responding on a concurrent schedule as a function of body weight. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 21:357–59. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McSweeney, F. K. (1978) Prediction of concurrent keypeck treadle-press responding from simple schedule performance. Animal Learning & Behavior 6:444–50. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McSweeney, F. K. (1992) Rate of reinforcement and session duration as determinants of withinsession patterns of responding. Animal Learning & Behavior 20:160–69. [arPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mechner, F. (1958) Probability relations within response sequences under ratio reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 1:109–21. [SFW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Medin, D. L. & Schaffer, M. M. (1978) Context theory of classification learning. Psychological Review 85:207–38. [MDK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mesterton-Gibbons, M. (1989) A concrete approach to mathematical modelling. Addison-Wesley. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Minsky, M. (1961) Steps toward artificial intelligence. Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers 49:8–30. [CDLW]Google Scholar
Moore, J. W. (1991) Implementing connectionist algorithms for classical conditioning in the brain. In: Neural network models of conditioning and action: A volume in the quantitative analysis of behavior series, ed. Commons, M. L., Grossberg, S. & Staddon, J. E. R.. Erlbaum. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Morley, M. J., Shah, K., Bradshaw, C. M. & Szabadi, E. (1988) DSP4 and Herrnstein's equation: Further evidence for a role of noradrenaline in the maintenance of operant behaviour by positive reinforcement. Psychopharmacology 96:551–56. [CMB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Navon, D. & Gopher, D. (1979) On the economy of the human-processing system. Psychological Review 86:214–55. [FS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neimark, E. D. & Estes, W. K. (1967) Stimulus sampling theory. Holden-Day. [rPHK]Google Scholar
Neuringer, A. (1992) Choosing to vary and repeat. Psychological Science 3:246–50. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neuringer, A. J. & Chung, S.-H. (1967) Quasi-reinforcement: Control of responding by a percentage-reinforcement schedule. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 10:45–54. [rPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nevin, J. A. (1992a) Behavioral contrast and behavioral momentum. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 18:126–33. [JAN]Google Scholar
Nevin, J. A. (1992b) An integrative model for the study of behavioral momentum. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 57:301–16. [JAN]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Norman, D. A. (1970) Models of human memory. Academic Press. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olton, D. S. (1979) Mazes, maps, and memory. American Psychologist 34:583–96. [SFW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olton, D. S. & Samuelson, R. J. (1976) Remembrance of places passed: Spatial memory in rats. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behaviour Processes 2:97–116. [SFW]Google Scholar
Overmier, J. B. & Lawry, J. A. (1979) Pavlovian conditioning and the mediation of behavior. In: The psychology of learning and motivation, vol. 13, ed. Bower, G. H.. Academic Press. [MDK]Google Scholar
Page, S. & Neuringer, A. (1985) Variability as an operant. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 11:429–52. [KAL]Google Scholar
Palmer, D. C. & Donahoe, J. W. (1992) Essentialism and selectionism in cognitive science and behavior analysis. American Psychologist 47:1344–58. [aPRK, KAL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Palya, W. L. (1992) Dynamics in the fine structure of schedule-controlled behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 57:267–87. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Papini, M. R. & Bitterman, M. E. (1990) The role of contingency in classical conditioning. Psychological Review 97:396–403. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pear, J. J. (1975) Implications of the matching law for ratio responding. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 23:139–40. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Papini, M. R. & Bitterman, M. E. (1985) Spatiotemporal patterns of behavior produced by variable-interval schedules of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 44:217–31. [rPRK, JJP]Google Scholar
Papini, M. R. & Bitterman, M. E. (1988) Behavioral stereotypy and the generalized matching equation. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 50:87–95. [JJP]Google Scholar
Pearce, J. M. (1987) A model for stimulus generalization in Pavlovian conditioning. Psychological Review 94:61–73. [MDK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peterson, L. R. & Peterson, M. J. (1959) Short-term retention of individual items. Journal of Experimental Psychology 58:193–98. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Platt, J. R. (1971) Discrete trials and their relation to free-operant behavior. In: Essays in neobehaviorism: A memorial volume to Kenneth W. Spence, ed. Kendler, H. H. & Spence, J. T.. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Platt, J. R. (1973) Percentile reinforcement: Paradigms for experimental analysis of response shaping. In: The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory, ed. Bower, G. H.. Academic Press. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Platt, J. R. (1979) Interresponse-time shaping by variable-interval-like interresponse-time reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 31:3–14. [aPRK, MDK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Platt, J. R. & Day, R. B. (1979) A hierarchical response-unit analysis of resistance to extinction following fixed-number and fixed-consecutive-number reinforcement. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 5:307–20. [arPRK, MDK]Google Scholar
Powell, R. W. (1968) The effect of small sequential changes in fixed-ratio size upon the post-reinforcement pause. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 11:589–93. [aPRK, DWS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Preston, R. A. & Fantino, E. (1991) Conditioned reinforcement value and choice. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 55:155–75. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rachlin, H., Raineri, A. & Cross, D. (1991) Subjective probability and delay. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 55:233–44. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rawlins, J. N. P. (1985) Associations across time: The hippocampus as a temporary memory store. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 8:479–96. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reed, P. (1992) Effect of local context of responding on human judgment of causality. Memory & Cognition 20:573–79. [PR]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reed, P., Schachtman, T. R. & Hall, G. (1991) Effect of signaled reinforcement on the formation of behavioral units. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 17:475–85. [arPRK, PR]Google Scholar
Rescorla, R. A. (1990a) Evidence for an association between the discriminative stimulus and the response-outcome association in instrumental learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 16:326–34. [MDK]Google ScholarPubMed
Rescorla, R. A. (1990b) The role of information about the response-outcome relationship in instrumental discrimination learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 16:262–70. [MDK, SFW]Google Scholar
Rescorla, R. A. & Solomon, R. L. (1967) Two-process learning theory: Relationship between Pavlovian and instrumental learning. Psychological Review 74:151–82. [MDK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rescorla, R. A. & Wagner, A. R. (1972) A theory of Pavlovian conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreiuforccment. In: Classical conditioning II: Current research and theory, ed. Black, A. H. & Prokasy, W. F.. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [rPRK, SJH, WT]Google Scholar
Revusky, S. & Garcia, J. (1970) Learned associations over long delays. In: The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory, ed. Bower, G. H.. Academic Press. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Reynolds, G. S. (1968) A primer of operant conditioning. Scott, Foresman. [JWD]Google Scholar
Reynolds, G. S. & McLeod, A. (1970) On the theory of interresponse-time reinforcement. In: The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory, ed. Bower, G. H.. Academic Press. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Richards, R. W. (1981) A comparison of signaled and unsigualed delay of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 35:145–52. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richardson, W. K. & Loughead, T. E. (1974) The effect of physical restraint on behaviour under the differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate schedule. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 21:455–61. [GG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robbins, T. W. & Everitt, B. J. (1992) Functions of dopamine in the dorsal and ventral striatum. Seminars in the Neurosciences 4:119–27. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robbins, T. W. & Sahakian, B. J. (1983) Behavioral effects of psychomotor stimulant drugs: Clinical and neuropsychological implications. In: Stimulants: Neurochemical, behavioral, and clinical perspectives, ed. Creese, I.. Raven Press. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Roberts, W. A. & Grant, D. S. (1974) Short-term memory in the pigeon with presentation time precisely controlled. Learning & Motivation 5:393–408. [rPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ross, S. M. (1970) Applied probability models with optimization applications. Holden-Day. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Rumelhart, D. E., Hinton, G. E. & Williams, R. (1986) Learning internal representations by error propagation. Nature 323:533–36. [SJH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sagvolden, T., Hendley, E. D. & Knardahl, S. (1992) Behavior of hypertensive and hyperactive rat strains: Hyperactivity is not unitarily determined. Physiology and Behavior 52:49–57. [MAM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sagvolden, T., Metzger, M. A. & Sagvolden, G. (1993) Frequent reward eliminates differences in activity between hyperkinetic rats and controls. Behavioral and Neural Biology 59:225–29. [MAM]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sakamoto, Y., Ishiguor, M. & Kitagawa, G. (1986) Akaike information criterion statistics. Reidel. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Santi, A., Bridson, S. & Ducharme, M. J. (1993) Memory codes for temporal and nontemporal samples in many-to-one matching by pigeons. Animal Learning & Behavior 21:120–30. [rPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schachter, D. L. (1987) Implicit memory: History and current status. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 13:501–18. [CPS]Google Scholar
Schlinger, H. D. Jr. (1992) Theory in behavior analysis: An application to child development. American Psychologist 47:1396–1410. [KAL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schoenfeld, W. N. (1972) Problems of modern behavior theory. Conditional Reflex 7:33–65. [rPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwartz, B. (1984) Creation of stereotyped, functional behavioral units. In: Quantitative analyses of behavior. Vol. IV: Discrimination processes, ed. Commons, M. L., Hernistein, R. J. & Wagner, A. R.. Ballinger. [PR]Google Scholar
Seligman, M. E. P. (1970) On the generality of the laws of learning. Psychological Review 77:406–18. [HD]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shah, K., Bradshaw, C. M. & Szabadi, E. (1991) Relative and absolute reinforcement frequency as determinants of choice in concurrent variable interval schedules. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 43B:25–38. [CMB]Google Scholar
Shanks, D. R. & Dickinson, A. (1991) Instrumental judgement and performance under variations in action-outcome contingency and contiguity. Memory and Cognition 19:353–60. [FS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shettleworth, D. J. (1975) Reinforcement and the organization of behavior in golden hamsters: Hunger, environment, and food reinforcement. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 1:56–87. [JHW]Google Scholar
Shettleworth, S. J. & Krebs, J. R. (1982) How marsh tits find their hoards: The roles of site preference and spatial memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 8:354–75. [SFW]Google ScholarPubMed
Shimp, C. P. (1973) Synthetic variable-interval schedules of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 19:311–30. [aPHK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shimp, C. P. (1976a) Organization in memory and behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 26:113–30. [aPRK, JJP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shimp, C. P. (1976b) Short-term memory in the pigeon: Relative recency. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 25:55–56. [aPRK, JJP]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shimp, C. P. (1976c) Short-term memory in the pigeon: The previously reinforced response. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 26:487–93. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shimp, C. P. (1978) Memory, temporal discrimination, and learned structure in behavior. In: The psychology of learning and motivation, vol. 12, ed. Bower, G. H.. Academic Press. [GPS]Google Scholar
Shimp, C. P. (1982) Metaknowledge in the pigeon: An organism's knowledge about its own behavior. Animal Learning and Behavior 10(3):358–64. [CPS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shimp, C. P. (1983) The local organization of behavior: Dissociations between a pigeon's behavior and self-reports of that behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 39:61–68. [CPS]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shimp, C. P. (1984) Self-reports by rats of the temporal patterning of their behavior: A dissociation between tacit knowledge and knowledge. In: Animal cognition, ed. Roitblat, H. L., Bever, T. G. & Terrace, H. S.. Erlbaum. [CPS]Google Scholar
Shimp, C. P. (1989) Contemporary behaviorism versus the old behavioral strawman in Gardner's The mind's new science: A history of the cognitive revolution. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 51:163–71. [CPS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shimp, C. P., Childers, L. J. & Hightower, F. A. (1990) Local patterns in human operant behavior and a behaving model to interrelate animal and human performances. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 16:200–212. [CPS]Google Scholar
Shimp, C. P., Sabulsky, S. L. & Childers, L. J. (1989) Preference for starting and finishing behavior patterns. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 53:341–52. [CPS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sidman, M. (1954) The temporal distribution of avoidance responses. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 47:399–402. [SFW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sidman, M. (1962) An adjusting avoidance schedule. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 5:271–77. [SFW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sizemore, O. J. & Lattal, K. A. (1978) Unsignalled delay of reinforcement in variable-interval schedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 30:169–75. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skinner, B. F. (1935) The generic nature of the concepts of stimulus and response. Journal of General Psychology 12:40–65. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1938) The behavior of organisms. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [aPRK, JWD, KAL]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1950) Are theories of learning necessary? Psychological Review 52:270–77. [KAL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1957) Verbal behavior. Appleton-Century-Crofts. [RLS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1969) Contingencies of reinforcement. A theoretical analysis. Prentice-Hall. [FS]Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1974) About behaviorism. Knopf. [KAL]Google Scholar
Smith, E. (1991) Illusory correlation in a simulated exemplar-based memory. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 27:107–23. [MDK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, L. D. (1992) On prediction and control: B. F. Skinner and the technological ideal of science. American Psychologist 47:216–23. [rPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snyderman, M. (1983) Body weight and response strength. Behaviour Analysis Letters 3:255–65. [arPRK, CMB]Google Scholar
Sober, E. (1984) The nature of selection: Evolutionary theory in philosophical focus. MIT Press. [JWD]Google Scholar
Spetch, M. L. & Sinha, S. S. (1989) Proactive effects in pigeons memory for event duration: Evidence for analogical retention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 15:347–57. [rPRK, DMW]Google Scholar
Spetch, M. L. & Wolke, D. M. (1983) Subjective shortening: A model of pigeons memory for event duration. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 9:14–30. [rPRK]Google Scholar
Staddon, J. E. R. (1977) On Herrnstein's equation and related forms. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 28:163–70. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Staddon, J. E. R. (1980) Optimality analyses of operant behavior and their relation to optimal foraging. In: Limits to action: The allocation of individual behavior, ed. Staddon, J. E. R.. Academic Press. [WT]Google Scholar
Staddon, J. E. R. (in press) Behaviorism: Mind, mechanism and society. Duckworth. [HR]Google Scholar
Staddon, J. E. R. & Zhang, Y. (1989) Response selection in operant learning. Behavioural Processes 20:189–97. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stein, L. & Belluzzi, J. D. (1989) Cellular investigations on behavioral reinforcement. Neuroscience and Biobehavior Reviews 13:69–80. [JWD]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stephens, D. W. & Dunbar, S. R. (1993) Dimensional analysis in behavioral ecology. Behavioral Ecology 4:172–83. [DWS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stokes, P. D. & Balsam, P. D. (1991) Effects of reinforcing preselected approximations on the topography of the rats' bar press. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 55:213–31. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Svartdal, F. (1991) Operant modulation of low-level attributes of rule-governed behavior by nonverbal contingeneies. Learning and Motivation 22:406–20. [rPRK, FS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Svartdal, F. (1992) Sensitivity to nonverbal operant contingencies: Do limited processes resources affect operant conditioning in humans? Learning and Motivation 23:383–405. [rPRK, FS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Svartdal, F. (1993) Working harder for less: Effect of incentive value on force of – instrumental response in humans. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 46A: 11–34. [JHW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Terrace, H. S. (1991) Chunking during serial learning by the pigeon: 1. Basic evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 17:79–91. [GG]Google ScholarPubMed
Thomas, G. V. (1983) Contiguity and contingency in instrumental conditioning. Learning and Motivation 14:513–26. [aPHK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thorndike, E. L. (1898) Animal intelligence: An experimental study of the association processes in animals. Psychological Review Monograph 2 (whole number 8). [CDLW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Timberlake, W. (1983) Rats' responses to a moving object related to food or water: A behavior-systems analysis. Animal Learning & Behavior 11:309–20. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Timberlake, W. (1993a) Animal behavior: A continuing synthesis. Annual Review of Psychology 44:675–708. [WT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Timberlake, W. (1993b) Behavior systems and reinforcement: An integrative approach. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 60:105–28. [WT]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Timberlake, W. & Lucas, G. A. (1989) Behavior systems and learning: From misbehavior to general principles. In: Contemporary learning theories: Instrumental conditioning theory and the impact of biological constraints on learning, ed. Klein, S. B. & Mowrer, R. R.. Erlbanm. [aPRK, WT]Google Scholar
Timberlake, W. & Peden, B. F. (1987) On the distinction between open and closed economies. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 48:35–60. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tolman, E. C. (1932) Purposive behavior in animals and man. Century. [SFW]Google Scholar
Tolman, E. C. (1948) Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological Review 55:189–208. [SFW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Hest, A., van Haaren, F. & van de Poll, N. E. (1987) Behavioral differences between male and female Wistar rats on DRL schedules: Effect of stimuli promoting collateral activities. Physiology & Behavior 39:255–61. [GG]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wagner, A. R. (1981) SOP: A model of automatic memory processing in animal behavior. In: Information processing in animals: Memory mechanisms, ed. Spear, N. E. & Miller, R. R.. Erlbaum. [rPRK]Google Scholar
Wagner, A. R. & Brandon, S. E. (1989) Evolution of a structured connectionist model of Pavlovian conditioning. In: Contemporary learning theories: Pavlovian conditioning and the status of learning theory, ed. Klein, B. & Mowrer, R. R.. Erlbaum. [rPRK]Google Scholar
Wasserman, E. A., Elek, S. M., Chatlosh, D. L. & Baker, A. G. (1993) Rating causal relations: Role of probability in judgments of response-outcome contingency. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 19:174–88. [FS]Google Scholar
Watkins, M. J. (1990) Mediationism and the obfuscation of memory. American Psychologist 45:328–35. [KAL]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wearden, J. H. (1989) Mysteries of the organism: Clark L. Hull's Principles of behavior and some problems in contemporary schedule theory. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 51:277–86. [JHW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wearden, J. H. & Clark, R. B. (1988) Interresponse-time reinforcement and behavior under aperiodic reinforcement schedules: A case study using computer modeling. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 14:200–211. [JHW]Google Scholar
Wearden, J. H. & Clark, R. B. (1989) Constraints on the process of interresponse-time reinforcement as the explanation of variable-interval performance. Behavioural Processes 20:151–75. [aPRK, JHW]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wearden, J. H. & Ferrara, A. (1993) Subjective shortening in humans' memory for stimulus duration. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 46B:163–86. [rPRK]Google ScholarPubMed
White, K. G., McCarthy, D. & Fantino, E. (1989) Cognition and behavior analysis. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 52:197–98. [rPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whittlesea, B. W. A. (1987) Preservation of specific experiences in general knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 13:3–17. [MDK]Google Scholar
Whittlesea, B. W. A. & Brooks, L. R. (1988) Critical influence of particular experiences in the perception of letters, words, and phrases. Memory and Cognition 16:387–99. [MDK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whittlesea, B. W. A. & Dorkin, M. D. (1993) Incidentally, things in general are particularly determined: An episodic-processing account of implicit learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 122(2):227–48. [MDK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkenfield, J., Nickel, M., Blakely, E. & Ploing, A. (1992) Acquisition of lever-press responding in rats with delayed reinforcement: A comparison of three procedures. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 58:431–43. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilkie, D. M. & Willson, R. J. (1990) Diseriminal distance analysis supports the hypothesis that pigeons retrospectively encode event duration. Animal Learning & Behavior 18:124–32. [DMW]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, B. A. (1972) Probability learning as a function of momentary reinforcement probability. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 17:363–68. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, B. A. (1975) The blocking of reinforcement control. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 24:215–26. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, B. A. (1976) The effects of unsignalled delayed reinforcement, Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 26:441–49. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, B. A. (1978) Information effects on the response-reinforcer association. Animal Learning & Behavior 6:371–79. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, B. A. (1988) Reinforcement, choice, and response strength. In: Stevens' handbook of experimental psychology. Vol. 2: Learning and cognition, 2nd ed., ed. Atkinson, R. C., Herrnstein, R. J., Lindzey, G. & Luce, R. D.. Wiley. [aPRK, JAN]Google Scholar
Williams, D. C. & Johnston, J. M. (1992) Continuous versus discrete dimensions of reinforcement schedules: An integrative analysis. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 58:205–28. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wixted, J. T. (1989) Nonhuman short-term memory: A quantitative analysis of selected findings. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 52:409–26. [rPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wogar, M. A., Bradshaw, C. M. & Szabadi, E. (1991) Evidence for an involvement of 5-hydroxytryptaminergic neurones in the maintenance of operant behaviour by positive reinforcement. Psychopharmacology 105:119–24. [CMB]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zeiler, M. D. (1979) Output dynamics. In: Advances in analysis of behaviour. Vol. 1: Reinforcement and the organization of behaviour, ed. Zeiler, M. D. & Harzem, P.. Wiley. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Zeiler, M. D. (1991) Ecological influences on timing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 17:13–25. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Zeiler, M. D. & Buchman, I. B. (1979) Response requirements as constraints on output. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 32:29–50. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zeiler, M. D. & Thompson, T. (1986) Analysis and integration of behavioral units. Erlbaum. [aPRK]Google Scholar
Zuriff, G. E. (1970) A comparison of variable-ratio and variable-interval schedules of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 12:369–74. [aPRK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zuriff, G. E. (1985) Behaviorism: A conceptual reconstruction. Columbia University Press. [KAL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar