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Producing organic fish diets requires that the use of both fishmeal and fish oil (FO) be minimized and replaced by sustainable, organic sources. The purpose of the present study was to replace FO with organic oils and evaluate the effects on feed intake, feed conversion ratio (FCR), daily specific growth rate (SGR) and nutrient digestibility in diets in which fishmeal protein was partly substituted by organic plant protein concentrates. It is prohibited to add antioxidants to organic oils, and therefore the effects of force-oxidizing the oils (including FO) on feed intake and nutrient digestibility was furthermore examined. Four organic oils with either a relatively high or low content of polyunsaturated fatty acids were considered: linseed oil, rapeseed oil, sunflower oil and grapeseed oil. Substituting FO with organic oils did not affect feed intake (P > 0.05), FCR or SGR (P > 0.05) despite very different dietary fatty acid profiles. All organic plant oils had a positive effect on apparent lipid digestibility compared with the FO diet (P < 0.05), whereas there were no effects on the apparent digestibility of other macronutrients when compared with the FO diet (P > 0.05). Organic vegetable oils did not undergo auto-oxidation as opposed to the FO, and the FO diet consequently had a significantly negative effect on the apparent lipid digestibility. Feed intake was not affected by oxidation of any oils. In conclusion, the study demonstrated that it is possible to fully substitute FO with plant-based organic oils without negatively affecting nutrient digestibility and growth performance. Furthermore, plant-based organic oils are less likely to oxidize than FOs, prolonging the shelf life of such organic diets.
This study was designed to analyse the evolution in the use of beef bull semen for dairy cattle insemination and, mainly, to assess calving difficulty, gestation length and proportion of stillbirths after breeding pure Holsteins or crossbreeding. Data were collected during 2004 to 2011 for 552 571 Holstein calvings (457 070 Holstein × Holstein, 43 384 Holstein × Limousine, 32 174 Holstein × Belgian Blue and 19 943 Holstein × Galician Blonde). The highest calving difficulty, compared with pure Holsteins was for crosses with Belgian Blue followed by Limousine and Galician Blonde. The Holstein × Limousine and Holstein × Galician Blonde crossbred calves had significantly longer gestation lengths than Holstein × Holstein and Holstein × Belgian Blue calves. Between the latter two, pure Holstein had the shortest gestation length. Calving difficulty and gestation length decreased as the age of the dam advanced. The most difficult calvings were observed in twin calvings, followed by the calvings of male calves and female calves. The gestations leading to the birth of male calves were longer than those leading to female calves and twin calves. Stillbirths were not related to the breed used for mating. Through examining these parameters, sire breed should be considered when selecting a beef breed for the insemination of milk-producing dams.
The addition of some fat co- and by-products to feeds is usual nowadays; however, the regulations of their use are not always clear and vary between countries. For instance, the use of recycled cooking oils is not allowed in the European Union, but they are used in other countries. However, oils recovered from industrial frying processes could show satisfactory quality for this purpose. Here we studied the effects of including oils recovered from the frying industry in rabbit and chicken feeds (at 30 and 60 g/kg, respectively) on the fatty acid (FA) and tocol (tocopherol + tocotrienol) compositon of meat, liver and plasma, and on their oxidative stability. Three dietary treatments (replicated eight times) were compared: fresh non-used oil (LOX); oil discarded from the frying industry, having a high content of secondary oxidation compounds (HOX); and an intermediate level (MOX) obtained by mixing 50 : 50 of LOX and HOX. The FA composition of oil diets and tissues was assessed by GC, their tocol content by HPLC, the thiobarbituric acid value was used to assess tissue oxidation status, and the ferrous oxidation-xylenol orange method was used to assess the susceptibility of tissues to oxidation. Our results indicate that FA composition of rabbit and chicken meat, liver and plasma was scarcely altered by the addition of recovered frying oils to feed. Differences were encountered in the FA composition between species, which might be attributed mainly to differences in the FA digestion, absorption and metabolism between species, and to some physiological dietary factors (i.e. coprophagy in rabbits that involves fermentation with FA structure modification). The α-tocopherol (αT) content of tissues was reduced in response to the lower αT content in the recovered frying oil. Differences in the content of other tocols were encountered between chickens and rabbits, which might be attributable to the different tocol composition of their feeds, as well as to species differences in the digestion and metabolism of tocols. Tissue oxidation and susceptibility to oxidation were in general low and were not greatly affected by the degree of oxidation of the oil added to the feeds. The relative content of polyunsaturated fatty acids/αT in these types of samples would explain the differences observed between species in the susceptibility of each tissue to oxidation. According to our results, oils recovered from the frying industry could be useful for feed uses.
Fatty acid translocase (FAT/CD36) is a membrane receptor that facilitates long-chain fatty acid uptake. To investigate its role in the regulation of long-chain fatty acid composition in muscle tissue, we studied and compared FAT/CD36 gene expression in muscle tissues of commercial broiler chickens and Chinese local Silky fowls. The results from gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis of muscle samples demonstrated that Chinese local Silky fowls had significantly higher (P < 0.05) proportions of linoleic acid (LA) and palmitic acid, lower proportions (P < 0.05) of arachidonic acid (AA) and oleic acid than the commercial broiler chickens. The mRNA expression levels of fatty acid (FA) transporters (FA transport protein-1, membrane FA-binding protein, FAT/CD36 and caveolin-1) in the m. ipsilateral pectoralis and biceps femoris were analyzed by Q-PCR, and FAT/CD36 expression levels showed significant differences between these types of chickens (P < 0.01). Interestingly, the levels of FAT/CD36 expression are positively correlated with LA content (r = 0.567, P < 0.01) but negatively correlated with palmitic acid content (r = −0.568, P < 0.01). Further experiments in the stably transfected Chinese hamster oocytes cells with chicken FAT/CD36 cDNA demonstrated that overexpression of FAT/CD36 improves total FA uptake with a significant increase in the proportion of LA and AA, and a decreased proportion of palmitic acid. These results suggest that chicken FAT/CD36 may selectively transport LA and AA, which may lead to the higher LA deposition in muscle tissue.
The objective of this study was to determine the effects of varying forage particle length on chewing activity, sorting behavior, rumen pH and rumen fill in late lactation and dry dairy cattle, fed rations with similar physically effective NDF but different mean particle length. Treatments consisted of three diets differing only in geometric mean length of forage: hay (5.40, 8.96 and 77.90 mm, for short (S), medium (M) and long (L) diets, respectively) for Experiment 1 (E1), and straw (10.16, 24.68 and 80.37 mm) for S, M and L diets, respectively, for Experiment 2 (E2). Hay or straw comprised the sole source of forage (50% and 75% of ration dry matter (DM) for E1 and E2, respectively). Both experiments used three rumen cannulated Holstein dairy cows, in late lactation for E1 and dry in E2, with 3 × 3 Latin square designs with 14 day periods. In E1, DM intake (DMI; 18.3 ± 2.1 kg/day; mean ± s.e.), pH (6.4 ± 0.1), time spent eating (280 ± 22.5 min/day), time spent ruminating (487 ± 17 min/day), and total time spent chewing (767 ± 34 min/day) were not different, whereas eating minutes per kilogram of DMI and NDF intake (NDFI) tended to increase linearly as forage length increased. Rumen digesta volume (l; 113.3 S, 117.8 M and 114.4 L ± 17.1) had a quadratic response, and rumen digesta weight tended to respond quadratically; however, differences were numerically small. In E2, DMI (8.3 ± 1.3 kg/day), pH (6.7 ± 0.1), time spent eating (236 ± 23.5 min/day), time spent ruminating (468 ± 45.2 min/day), total time spent chewing (704 ± 67.7 min/day) and minutes per kilogram NDFI were not different, whereas minutes per kilogram of DMI had a trend for a quadratic effect. Rumen digesta volume (111 ± 18.8 l) and weight (103 ± 17.4 kg) were not different. In both experiments, cows sorted against longer particles as determined by a particle length selection index; this behavior increased linearly as particle length increased. Greater forage particle length increased sorting behavior, but had no effect on rumen fermentation or chewing behavior.
This work was part of a project designed to assess whether organic selenium (Se) can protect against the toxic effects of cadmium (Cd). A total of 300 1-day-old, as hatched, broilers were randomly distributed in four dietary treatments with five replicate pens per treatment. In T1 treatment, broilers were fed a diet with 0.3 mg/kg added Se, as Se-yeast, without added Cd; in T2, broilers were fed a diet with 0.3 mg/kg Se and 10 mg/kg Cd; in T3, broilers were fed a diet with 0.3 mg/kg Se and 100 mg/kg of Cd; and in T4 treatment broilers were fed a diet with 3 mg/kg Se and 100 mg/kg Cd. The Cd was added to diets T2, T3 and T4 as CdCl2. On the 4th and 6th week, two broilers per replicate pen were killed in order to obtain whole blood, liver, kidney and breast samples. Body mass, feed conversion ratio and mortality were assessed and haematological analyses were performed. Se and Cd levels in tissues were analysed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Broilers supplemented with 0.3 mg/kg Se can tolerate low levels of Cd added to the diets, as there were no significant negative effects on the examined performance parameters, whereas addition of excess Cd led to an impairment of broilers’ performance. Mortality of broilers did not differ between the four dietary treatments at any interval point or the whole period. The examined haematological parameters such as haematocrit, total blood protein concentration, and leukocytes types ranged within physiological values, revealing no negative health effects after simultaneous Cd and Se addition. The present study indicated that Se can help against the negative effects of Cd, but cannot counteract all of its negative effects.
The effects of first calving (FC) in Holstein heifers on their first lactation, second lactation and lifetime milk production were examined from an initial database of 459 743 animals that first calved between 1 January 1990 and 31 July 2010 in Wallonia, Belgium. The FC age class (18 to 22, 22 to 26, 26 to 30, 30 to 34, 34 to 38 and 38 to 42 months), the FC season and FC year class (1990 to 1994, 1995 to 1999, 2000 to 2004 and 2005 to 2010) were considered when analysing the first and second lactation data. Lifetime data were similarly analysed, but did not include animals that calved after 2005 because many of them were still lactating. Only 24% of animals had their FC before 26 months of age. Animals that first calved between 22 and 26 months of age had more lactations and productive days during their life. They also had higher first and second lactation milk production and lifetime milk production. Summer or autumn FC improved first lactation, second lactation and lifetime milk production, as well as production per day of lactation, compared with winter or spring FC. Compared with animals that calved for the first time in 1990 to 1994, animals with a FC in 2000 to 2004 had a longer calving interval (0.5 months), fewer lactations per animal (−0.6) and fewer days in their lifetime lactation (a reduction of 144 days). As a result, the animals’ lifetime production did not increase between 1990 to 1994 and 2000 to 2004, although milk production per day of lactation (22.85 v. 20.49 l/day) and per day of life (11.49 v. 10.78 l/day) improved. Milk fat content was lower in 2000 to 2004 than in 1990 to 1994, but protein content remained relatively constant, probably because of the cows’ higher production level and increased dietary concentrate supplementation.
A buffalo oocyte-specific subtracted cDNA library was constructed to identify exclusively or preferentially oocyte-expressed genes. The library represented an enriched population of transcripts obtained from oocytes of diverse ovarian follicular origin and at different stages of in vitro maturation. A total of 1173 high-quality sequences of oocyte-specific genes were clustered into 645 unique sequences, out of which 65.76% were represented as singlets and 34.26% as contig expressed sequence tags (ESTs; clusters). Analysis of sequences revealed that 498 of these sequences were identified as a known sequence in mammalian species including buffalo, 103 as uncharacterized ESTs and 44 unknown sequences including 1 novel EST, so far not reported in any species. Gene ontology annotation classified these sequences into functional categories of cellular events and biological processes associated with oocyte competence. Expression status of the isolated unknown ESTs confirmed that many of these are expressed in oocytes exclusively and in others preferentially, some in excess of 80-fold greater in comparison with a variety of somatic tissues. The isolated novel EST was detected to be expressed exclusively in oocytes and testicular cells only. To our knowledge, this is the first report giving a detailed transcriptome account of oocyte-expressed genes in buffalo. This study will provide important information on the physiological control of oocyte development, as well as many questions yet to be addressed on the reproductive process of buffalo.
The present study was designed to analyze the growth performance, behavioral patterns and intensity of injuries of weaned pigs (26 days) during a rearing period of 6 weeks. The farrowing system (group housing (GH) v. single housing (SH)) and the post-weaning regrouping weight class (light, medium, heavy) were considered as the main factors. A number of 120 GH-pigs and 120 SH-pigs were kept in three batches (20 pens, 12 pigs each). The GH- and SH-pigs were divided by weight into three groups: light (5 to ⩽7 kg), medium (>7 to ⩽9 kg) and heavy (>9 to ⩽12 kg), with two pigs of six different litters in each pen. The pigs were weighed individually at weaning (week 1) and during rearing (weeks 2, 3 and 7). The feed conversion ratio (FCR) was calculated between weeks 1 and 7. The duration and number of fights (NF) per pen and hour were determined by continuous sampling (40 h after weaning). Lesions of the integument were scored into four classes (none, minor, medium, severe) and recorded at weaning and 48 h afterwards. The farrowing system had no effect on the weights in week 1 (GH: 7.8 kg v. SH: 7.7 kg; week as linear, quadratic regression nested within housing systems) or in week 7 (GH: 29.4 kg v. SH: 28.6 kg). The body weights were influenced significantly by the weaning weight class (light: 11.7 kg (s.e.m.: 0.30), medium: 14.8 kg (s.e.m.: 0.22), heavy: 17.3 kg (s.e.m.: 0.26)). The FCR of the GH-pigs was 1.64 (s.e.m.: 0.03) and 1.58 (s.e.m.: 0.03) for SH-pigs. A reduced agonistic behavior of the GH-pigs was observed with 2.1 fights per pen and hour (s.e.m.: 0.07) v. the SH-pigs with 4.6 fights per pen and hour (s.e.m.: 0.05). The fight duration of the GH-pigs with 10.3 s per pen and hour (s.e.m.: 1.07) was significantly lower in comparison to the SH-pigs with 18.8 s per pen and hour (s.e.m.: 1.06). The SH-pigs had more new skin lesions at the shoulders than the GH-pigs 48 h after weaning (P < 0.05). In conclusion, early mixing of unacquainted litters during lactation had no influence on their growth performance during rearing but reduced agonistic behavior and lesion score difference during the first 2 days after weaning. No significant interaction between the farrowing system and weaning weight class was detected with regard to growth performance and NF.
An experiment was set up for (i) comparing Australian and French consumer preferences to beef and to (ii) quantify how well the Meat Standards Australia (MSA) grading model could predict the eating quality of beef in France. Six muscles from 18 Australian and 18 French cattle were tested as paired samples. In France, steaks were grilled ‘medium’ or ‘rare’, whereas in Australia ‘medium’ cooking was used. In total, 360 French consumers took part in the ‘medium’ cooking test, with each eating half Australian beef and half French beef and 180 French consumers tested the ‘rare’ beef. Consumers scored steaks for tenderness (tn), juiciness (ju), flavour liking (fl) and overall liking (ov). They also assigned a quality rating to each sample: ‘unsatisfactory’, ‘satisfactory everyday quality’ (3*), ‘better than everyday quality’ (4*) or ‘premium quality’ (5*). The prediction of the final ratings (3*, 4*, 5*) by the French consumers using the MSA-weighted eating quality score (0.3 tn + 0.1 ju + 0.3 fl + 0.3 ov) was over 70%, which is at least similar to the Australian experience. The boundaries between ‘unsatisfactory’, 3*, 4* and 5* were found to be ca. 38, 61 and 80, respectively. The differences between extreme classes are therefore slightly more important in France than in Australia. On average, even though it does not have predictive equations for bull meat, the mean predicted scores calculated by the MSA model deviated from observed values by a maximum of 5 points on a 0 to 100 scale except for the Australian oyster blade and the French topside, rump and outside (deviating by <15). Overall, the data indicate that it would be possible to manage a grading system in France as there is high agreement and consistency across consumers. The ‘rare’ and ‘medium’ results are also very similar, indicating that a common set of weightings and cut-offs can be employed.
The files for ultrasound diagnosis of gestating mares belonging to the French equine herd recorded for 3 consecutive years were joined with the files for foal birth of these same mares, allowing the statistical analysis of factors of pregnancy loss. For 28 872 positive diagnoses of gestation, 2898 losses were recorded, that is, a global rate of gestation interruption of 9.12%. The etiology of these interruptions is mainly extrinsic: the year and month of insemination, as well as region for climatic reasons. The intrinsic causes that are implicated are breed of the father (heavy breeds except the hypermetric ones lose fewer pregnancies than warm-blooded breeds), age of the mother (losses are lower in mares of 7 to 10 years of age) and status (mares with foals have fewer pregnancy losses than mares not having foaled the previous year), as well as fetuses with consanguinity (when this increases, the pregnancy losses increase as well). However, the additive genetic effect is extremely low; it corresponds to heritability below 5% and few effects of the environment, common to the offspring of the same mare, were identified. This therefore gives little hope of being able to select against the ‘gestation loss’ trait.
The effect of feed restriction on gene expression of regulatory enzymes of intermediary metabolism was studied in two sheep breeds (Australian Merino and Dorper) subjected to two nutritional treatments: feed restriction (85% of daily maintenance requirements) and control (ad libitum feeding), during 42 days. The experimental animals (ram lambs) were divided into four groups, n = 5 (Australian Merino control (MC), Australian Merino Restriction (MR), Dorper control (DC) and Dorper Restriction (DR)). After the trial, animals were sacrificed and samples were taken from liver tissue to quantify glucose levels and gene expression of relevant intermediary metabolism enzymes (phosphofructokinase (PFK), pyruvate kinase (PK), phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase, glucose-6-phosphatase, glycogen synthase (GS), fatty acid synthase (FAS), glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) and carbamoyl phosphate synthase (CPS)) through real-time PCR. During the experimental period, the MR animals lost 12.6% in BW compared with 5.3% lost by the Dorper lambs. MC and DC rams gained, respectively, 8.8% and 14% during the same period. Within the Dorper breed, restricted feed animals revealed a significant decrease over controls in the transcription of PFK (1.95-fold) and PK (2.26-fold), both glycolytic enzymes. The gluconeogenesis showed no change in the feed restricted animals of both breeds. DR feed group presented a significant decrease over the homologous Merino sheep group on GS. In both experimental breeds, FAS mRNA expression was decreased in restricted feed groups. GDH expression was decreased only in the DR animals (1.84-fold) indicating a reduced catabolism of amino acids in these animals. Finally, CPS was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in the Dorper sheep, indicating a facilitated urea synthesis in this breed. These results indicate a better adaptation of metabolic intermediate regulatory enzymes and hepatic glucose production of Dorper sheep to feed restriction concurring with the BW results in the experimental groups.
The objective was to assess the ability of the in situ mobile nylon bag method for predicting small intestinal and total tract starch digestibility. Starch disappearance was measured for 18 samples of different cereals and legumes subjected to different physical and chemical processing methods and compared with coherent in vivo digestibility. Starch disappearance was measured both with and without initial ruminal pre-incubation during 4 h. Bags were retrieved from either the ileal cannula or faeces. Two dry Danish Holstein cows fitted with rumen cannulas were used for rumen pre-incubations and two lactating Danish Holstein cows fitted with duodenal and ileal cannulas were used for intestinal incubations. Rumen pre-incubation had no significant effect on disappearance from bags recovered in faeces. The disappearance of legume starch was lower, both in the rumen and small intestine, compared with starch from barley, wheat, oats, ear maize and maize. Transit times of the mobile bags from duodenum to ileum were not significantly different between feeds. A weak positive correlation was found between in vivo small intestinal and total tract digestibility of starch and disappearance obtained using the mobile bag technique across a broad range of starch sources. Omitting two less conventional starch sources (NaOH wheat and xylose-treated barley) resulted in a high (0.87) correlation between total tract in vivo digestibility and mobile bag disappearance. The use of the mobile bag method for estimation of in vivo starch digestibility will therefore depend on the starch type.
This study is an exploratory analysis for understanding the effect of a duodenal infusion of an α-linolenic acid (LNA) on the plasma and milk proteome of lactating dairy cows. Four primiparous Holstein cows were fitted with duodenal cannulas and received 0, 100, 200, 300 and 400 g/day of LNA in a two-treatment crossover design. Blood and milk were collected for determination of protein composition by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. Alteration of protein spots was detected and identified using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight/time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-TOF MS). Plasma haptoglobin levels, and milk β-casein A2, αs1-casein variant and albumin, did not differ in cows after infusion of 0, 100, 200 and 300 g/day of LNA, but were increased after the cows received duodenal infusion of 400 g/day of LNA. Western blot analysis of haptoglobin expression in plasma confirmed the alterations in protein expression seen using MS. This study demonstrated that infusion of high doses of LNA by duodenal cannula can result in metabolic stress within the bovine intestine and in changes in milk composition.
In this study, antioxidant capability and protective effect of probiotics on reproductive damage induced by diet oxidative stress were investigated. Thirty male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into three groups with 10 rats in each group. The control group consumed a normal standard diet (5% fat, w/w). The other two treatment groups were fed with a high-fat diet (20% fat, w/w), and a high-fat diet supplemented with 2% probiotics (w/w), respectively. At the end of the experimental period, that is, after 6 weeks, rats were killed. Activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), contents of nitric oxide (NO) free radical and malondialdehyde (MDA) in serum and sperm suspension were examined. Sperm parameters including sperm concentration, viability, motility and DNA integrity were analyzed. The results showed that high-fat diet could induce oxidative stress, shown as significant increases in lipid peroxidation, NO free radical, significant decrease in activities of SOD, GSH-Px, significant reduction in sperm concentration, viability and motility, and damage in sperm DNA (P < 0.05), compared with the control group. These alterations were significantly reversed in the probiotics-supplemented group and had no significant difference in antioxidant capability, lipid peroxidation and sperm parameters compared with the control group. The percentage of sperm with DNA damage was significantly lower than the high-fat diet group and still higher than the control group, which means that probiotics could attenuate sperm damage to some extent. The present results indicated that dietary probiotics had antioxidant activity and the protective effect against sperm damage induced by high-fat diet to some extent.
The proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 1 (PCSK1) gene encodes the prohormone convertase 1/3 enzyme that processes prohormones into functional hormones that, in turn, regulate central and peripheral energy metabolism. Mutations in the human PCSK1 gene cause severe monogenic obesity or confer risk of obesity. We herein investigated the porcine PCSK1 gene with the aim of identifying polymorphisms associated with fat deposition and production traits in Italian heavy pigs. By re-sequencing about 5.1 kb of this gene in 21 pigs of different breeds, we discovered 14 polymorphisms that were organized in nine haplotypes, clearly distributed in two clades of putative European and Asian origin. Then we re-mapped this gene on porcine chromosome 2 and analysed its expression in several tissues including gastric oxyntic mucosa of weanling pigs in which PCSK1 processes the pre-pro-ghrelin into ghrelin, which in turn is involved in the control of feed intake and energy metabolism. Association analyses between PCSK1 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and production, carcass and several other traits were conducted on five groups of pigs from three different experimental designs, for a total of 1221 animals. Results indicated that the analysed SNPs were associated (P < 0.01 or P < 0.05) with several traits including backfat thickness and visible intermuscular fat in Italian Duroc (ID) and growth performances in Italian Large White (ILW) and in ILW × Italian Landrace pigs. However, the effects estimated in the ILW were opposite to the effects reported in the ID pigs. Suggestive association (P < 0.10) was observed with muscle cathepsin B activity, opening, if confirmed, potential applications to reduce the excessive softness defect of the green hams that is of particular concern for the processing industry. The results obtained supported the need to further investigate the PCSK1 gene to fully exploit the value of its variability and apply this information in pig breeding programmes.