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  1. Home
  2. Books
  3. The Cold War and the United States Information Agency
  • Cited by 193
Publisher:
Cambridge University Press
Online publication date:
February 2015
Print publication year:
2008
Online ISBN:
9780511817151
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511817151
Subjects:
Area Studies, American History after 1945, American Studies, American Government, Politics and Policy, History, Politics and International Relations
Information

Book description

Published at a time when the US government's public diplomacy has been in crisis, this book provides an exhaustive account of how it used to be done. The United States Information Agency was created, in 1953, to 'tell America's story to the world' and, by engaging with the world through international information, broadcasting, culture, and exchange programs, became an essential element of American foreign policy during the Cold War. Based on newly declassified archives and more than 100 interviews with veterans of public diplomacy, from the Truman administration to the fall of the Berlin Wall, Nicholas J. Cull relates both the achievements and the endemic flaws of American public diplomacy in this period. Major topics include the process by which the Truman and Eisenhower administrations built a massive overseas propaganda operation; the struggle of the Voice of America to base its output on journalistic truth; the challenge of presenting civil rights, the Vietnam War, and Watergate to the world; and the climactic confrontation with the Soviet Union in the 1980s. This study offers remarkable and new insights into the Cold War era.

Awards

Winner of the Choice Outstanding Academic Title 2009

Reviews

‘Highly recommended.’

Source: Choice

‘Nicholas Cull's comprehensive history of USIA begins by clarifying what is meant by ‘public diplomacy.’ This is a great service, because since 9/11 every committee, think tank, advisory board and broom closet in Washington has published a report on the topic … none cuts through the semantic muddle as deftly as Mr Cull.’

Martha Bayles Source: Wall Street Journal

‘Cull’s masterful history will be the gold standard in scholarship on USIA.’

Bruce Gregory Source: Naval War College Review

‘Exhaustively researched, lucidly written with an obvious enthusiasm for the subject, The Cold War and the US Information Agency deserves to become a standard text of public diplomacy.’

Lawrence Raw Source: Journal of Popular Culture

'At a time when public diplomacy is more important than ever before, Nick Cull has provided a comprehensive examination that should be of great value to professionals, scholars, and concerned citizens. Thoroughly researched and clearly organized, the book illuminates the evolution of public diplomacy in the United States during the Cold War, highlights successes and failures, and suggests lessons for the future.'

Melvyn P. Leffler - Stettinius Professor of American History, University of Virginia

‘American soft power has recently been in decline, yet we used public diplomacy as a key instrument of soft power during the Cold War decades. This important book tells the story of how we did it, and what we need to do it again.’

Joseph S. Nye, Jr - University Distinguished Service Professor, Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University

‘Although US capabilities in public diplomacy have withered over the past decade, The Cold War and the United States Information Agency suggests the importance of examining the lessons that might be learned from earlier successes and failures of ‘soft power’. Drawing on prodigious archival research and engagingly written, Cull presents the first comprehensive history and assessment of the varied elements that comprised the USIA’s mission to tell ‘America’s story to the world’. He consistently weaves insightful analysis into an engrossing and timely narrative.’

Emily S. Rosenberg - University of California, Irvine

‘In The Cold War and the United States Information Agency, Nick Cull has written the definitive history of US public diplomacy. It is a masterwork, meticulously researched and engagingly written, and should be required reading for anyone who cares about US foreign policy.’

Kristin M. Lord - Associate Dean, Elliott School of International Affairs, George Washington University

‘[Nicholas Cull’s] conclusions are based on a huge amount of evidence, which he presents in a lucid manner. This is an important book, if a melancholy one, and deserves to be read by historians and practitioners alike.’

Source: The Times Literary Supplement

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Contents

Contents
References
Selected Bibliography
Selected Printed Documentary Sources
Foreign Relations of the United States., Washington, DC: GPO, various dates.
Public Papers of the Presidents, Washington, DC: GPO, various dates.
United States Committee on Public Information, Complete Report of the Chairman of the Committee on Public Information 1917: 1918; 1919, Washington, DC: GPO, 1920.
United States Information Agency, Review of Operations, Washington, DC: United States Information Agency, 1953–68.
Selected Books
Alexandre, Laurien. The Voice of America: From Détente to the Reagan Doctrine. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corp., 1988.
Amerson, Robert. How Democracy Triumphed over Dictatorship: Public Diplomacy in Venezuela. Washington, DC: The American University Press, 1995.
Appy, Christian G., editor. Cold War Constructions: The Political Culture of United States Imperialism, 1945–1966. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2000.
Arndt, Richard T.The First Resort of Kings: American Cultural Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century. Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2005.
Arndt, Richard T. and David, Lee Rubin. The Fulbright Difference. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1996.
Benjamin, Curtis G.U.S. Books Abroad: Neglected Ambassadors. Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1984.
Beschloss, Michael R.The Crisis Years: Kennedy and Khrushchev, 1960–1963. New York: Harper Collins, 1991.
Black, Jean and Viktoria, Schmidt-Linsenhoff, editors. The Family of Man, 1955–2001: Humanism and Postmodernism, A Reappraisal of the Photo Exhibition by Edward Steichen. Marburg, Germany: Jonas Verlag, 2004.
Blitzer, Mark and Pickett, Neil. Review of Voice of America Programming during the Persian Gulf War. Indianapolis, IN: Hudson Institute, 1991.
Brown, Donald R.International Radio Broadcasting: The Limits of the Limitless Medium. New York: Praeger, 1982.
Casey, Steven. Cautious Crusade: Franklin D. Roosevelt, American Public Opinion and the War against Nazi Germany. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Castle, Eugene W.Billions, Blunders and Baloney. New York: Devin Adair Co., 1955.
Caute, David. The Dancer Defects: The Struggle for Cultural Supremacy during the Cold War. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Chandler, Robert W.War of Ideas: The U.S. Propaganda Campaign in Vietnam. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1981.
Costigliola, Frank. Awkward Dominion: American Political, Economic and Cultural Relations with Europe, 1919–1933. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984.
Creel, George. How We Advertised America: The First Telling of the Amazing Story of the Committee on Public Information. New York: Harper & Bros., 1920.
Cull, Nicholas J.Selling War: British Propaganda and American “Neutrality” in World War II. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Dadge, David. Casualty of War: The Bush Administration's Assault on the Free Press. Amherst: Prometheus Books, 2004.
Daugherty, William E. and Janowitz, Morris. A Psychological Warfare Casebook. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1958.
Dawson, Alan. 55 Days: The Fall of South Vietnam. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977.
Deibel, Terry and Roberts, Walter. Culture and Information: Two Foreign Policy Functions. Washington, DC: Sage, 1976.
Andrew, Defty, Britain, America and Anti-Communist Propaganda, 1945–1953. London: Frank Cass, 2004.
Dizard, Wilson. Inventing Public Diplomacy: The Story of the U.S. Information Agency. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2004.
Dizard, Wilson, Strategy of Truth: The Story of the U.S. Information Service. Washington, DC: Public Affairs Press, 1961.
Dudden, Arthur Power and Russell, R. Dynes. The Fulbright Experience. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1987.
Dudziak, Mary. Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000.
Dumbrell, John. The Carter Presidency: A Re-evaluation, second edition. Manchester, UK: University of Manchester Press, 1995.
Duncanson, Dennis, Yudkin, Richard, and Zorthian, Barry. Lessons of Vietnam: Three Interpretive Essays. South Orange, NJ: Seton Hall University/American Asian Educational Exchange, 1971.
Espinosa, J. Manuel. Inter-American Beginnings of U.S. Cultural Diplomacy, 1936–1948. Washington, DC: Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, U.S. Department of State, 1976.
Frankel, Charles. High on Foggy Bottom: An Outsider's Inside View of the Government. New York, Harper & Row, 1968.
Frankel, Charles. The Neglected Aspect of Foreign Affairs: American Educational and Cultural Policy Abroad. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1965.
Franzusoff, Victor. Talking to the Russians: Glimpses by a Voice of America Pioneer. Santa Barbara, CA: Fithian Press, 1998.
Fried, Richard M.The Russians are Coming! The Russians Are Coming! Pageantry and Patriotism in Cold War America. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Gary, Brett. The Nervous Liberals: Propaganda Anxieties from World War I to the Cold War. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999.
Gienow-Hecht, Jessica C. E.Transmission Impossible: American Journalism as Cultural Diplomacy in Post-war Germany, 1945–1955. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1999.
Goldmann, Robert B.Wayward Threads. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1997.
Green, Fitzhugh. American Propaganda Abroad: From Benjamin Franklin to Ronald Reagan. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1988.
Grose, Peter. Operation Rollback: America's Secret War behind the Iron Curtain. Boston/New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000.
Haddow, Robert H.Pavilions of Plenty: Exhibiting American Culture Abroad in the 1950s. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1997.
Hammond, William M.Reporting Vietnam: Media and Military at War. Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press, 1998.
Hammond, William M.United States Army in Vietnam, Public Affairs: The Military and the Media, 1962–1968. Washington, DC: US Army, 1989.
Hansen, Allen C.United States Information Agency: Public Diplomacy in the Computer Age, second edition. New York: Praeger, 1989.
Heil, Alan L. Jr.Voice of America: A History. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.
Hilderbrand, Robert C.Power and the People: Executive Management of Public Opinion in Foreign Affairs, 1897–1921. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1981.
Hixson, Walter. Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture and the Cold War, 1945–1961. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997.
Hogan, Michael J.The Marshall Plan: America, Britain and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947–1952. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
Hunt, Michael H.Ideology and US Foreign Policy. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987.
Hunt, Richard A.Pacification: The American Struggle for Vietnam's Hearts and Minds. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998.
Hyman, Sydney. The Lives of William Benton. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969.
Jurey, Philomena. A Basement Seat to History: Tales of Covering Presidents Nixon, Ford, Carter and Reagan for the Voice of America. Washington, DC: Linus Press, 1995.
Kendrick, Alexander. Prime Time: The Life of Edward R. Murrow. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1969.
Krenn, Michael L.Black Diplomacy: African Americans and the State Department, 1945–1969. New York: M. E. Sharp, 1998.
Krenn, Michael L.Fallout Shelters of the Human Spirit: American Art and the Cold War. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2005.
Krugler, David. The Voice of America and the Domestic Propaganda Battles, 1945–1953. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 2000.
Kuisel, Richard. Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993.
Kunczik, Michael. Images of Nations and International Public Relations. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997.
Latimer, Harry D.US Psychological Operations in Vietnam. Providence: Brown University, 1973.
Leffler, Melvyn P.A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration and the Cold War. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1992.
Littleton, Taylor D. and Sykes, Maltby. Advancing American Art: Painting, Politics and Cultural Confrontation at Mid-Century. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 1989.
Lord, Carnes. Losing Hearts and Minds? Public Diplomacy and Strategic Influence in the Age of Terror. New York: Praeger, 2006.
Lowenthal, Abraham F.The Dominican Intervention. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995.
Lucas, W. Scott. Freedom's War: The American Crusade against the Soviet Union. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1999.
MacCann, Richard Dyer. The People's Films: A Political History of US Government Motion Pictures. New York: Hastings House, 1973.
Manheim, Jarol B.Strategic Public Diplomacy and American Foreign Policy: The Evolution of Influence. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.
McMurray, R. E. and Lee, M.. The Cultural Approach: Another Way in International Relations. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1947.
Mecklin, John. Mission in Torment: The Intimate Account of the U.S. Role in Vietnam. New York: Doubleday, 1965.
Melissen, Jan, editor. The New Public Diplomacy. London: Palgrave, 2006.
Merson, Martin. The Private Diary of a Public Servant. New York: Macmillan, 1955.
Mickelson, Sig. America's Other Voice: The Story of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty. New York: Praeger, 1983.
Mitrovich, Gregory. Undermining the Kremlin: America's Strategy to Subvert the Soviet Bloc, 1947–1956. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000.
Nelson, Michael. War of the Black Heavens: The Battles of Western Broadcasting and the Cold War. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1997.
Ninkovich, Frank A.The Diplomacy of Ideas: US Foreign Policy and Cultural Relations, 1938–1950. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
Nye, Joseph S. Jr.Soft Power: The Means to Success in International Relations. New York: Public Affairs Press, 2004.
Osgood, Kenneth. Total Cold War: Eisenhower's Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and AbroadLawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press, 2006.
Page, Caroline. U.S. Official Propaganda during the Vietnam War, 1965–1973: The Limits of persuasion. Leicester, UK: University of Leicester Press, 1999.
Paddock, Alfred H. Jr.US Army Special Warfare: Its Origins, revised edition. Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press, 2002.
Parta, R. Eugene. Discovering the Hidden Listener: An Assessment of Radio Liberty and Western Broadcasting to the U.S.S.R. during the Cold War. Palo Alto, CA: Hoover Press, 2007.
Persico, Joseph E.Edward R. Murrow: An American Original. New York: McGraw–Hill, 1988.
Pirsein, Robert William. The Voice of America: A History of the International Broadcasting Activities of the United States Government, 1940–1962. New York: Arno Press, 1979.
Prevots, Naima. Dance for Export: Cultural Diplomacy and the Cold War. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1998.
Price, Monroe E.Media and Sovereignty: The Global Information Revolution and the Challenge to State Power. Boston: MIT Press, 2002.
Price, Monroe E. and Thompson, Mark, editors. Forging Peace: Intervention, Human Rights and the Management of Media Space. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2002.
Pronay, Nicholas and Wilson, Keith, editors. The Political Re-education of Germany and Her Allies after World War II. London: Croom Helm, 1985.
Puddington, Arch. Broadcasting Freedom: The Cold War Triumph of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty. Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky Press, 2000.
Rawnsley, Gary D.Radio Diplomacy and Propaganda: The British Broadcasting Corporation and Voice of America in International Politics, 1956–64. London: Macmillan, 1996.
Richmond, Yale. U.S.–Soviet Cultural Exchanges, 1958–1986: Who Wins?Boulder, CO: Westview, 1987.
Richmond, Yale. Cultural Exchange & the Cold War: Raising the Iron Curtain. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003.
Ripmaster, Terence M.Willis Conover: Broadcasting Jazz to the World. Lincoln, NE: iUniverse Inc., 2007.
Rosenberg, Emily S.Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural Expansion, 1890–1945. New York: Hill and Wang, 1982.
Rowan, Carl T.Breaking Barriers: A Memoir. Boston: Little, Brown, 1991.
Rugh, William. American Encounters with Arabs: The “Soft Power” of American Diplomacy in the Middle East. New York: Praeger, 2005
Sandeen, Eric J.Picturing an Exhibition: The Family of Man and 1950s America. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 1995.
Saunders, Francis Stonor. Who Paid the Piper: The Central Intelligence Agency and the Cultural Cold War. London: Granta, 1999.
Scott-Smith, Giles. The Politics of Apolitical Culture: The Congress for Cultural Freedom, the Central Intelligence Agency, and Postwar American Hegemony. London: Routledge, 2002.
Scott-Smith, Giles and Krabbendam, Hans, editors. The Cultural Cold War in Western Europe, 1945–1960. London: Frank Cass, 2003.
Scott-Smith, Giles. Networks of Empire: The U. S. State Department's Foriegn Leader Program in the Netherlands, France, and Britain 1950–1970. Brussels: Peter Lang, 2008.
Short, K. R. M., editor. Western Broadcasting over the Iron Curtain. London: Croom Helm, 1986.
Shulman, Holly Cowan. The Voice of America: Propaganda and Democracy, 1941–1945. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990.
Simpson, Howard R.Tiger in the Barbed Wire: An American in Vietnam, 1952–1991. Washington, DC: Brassey's, 1992.
Sorensen, Thomas. The Word War: The Story of American Propaganda. New York: Harper & Row, 1968.
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Snyder, Alvin A.Warriors of Disinformation: American Propaganda, Soviet Lies, and the Winning of the Cold War. New York: Arcade Publishing, 1995.
Sperber, A. M.Murrow: His Life and Times. New York: Fordham University Press, 1986.
Steichen, Edward. The Family of Man. New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1956.
Taylor, Philip M.Munitions of the Mind: A History of Propaganda from the Ancient World to the Present Day, third edition. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2003.
Tent, James F.Mission on the Rhine: “Reeducation” and Denazification in American-Occupied Germany. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.
Trumpbour, John. Selling Hollywood to the World, U.S. and European Struggles for Mastery of the Global Film Industry, 1920–1950. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002
Tuch, Hans N.Communicating with the World: U.S. Public Diplomacy Overseas. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990.
Tudda, John. The Truth Is Our Weapon: The Rhetorical Diplomacy of Dwight D. Eisenhower and John Foster Dulles. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 2006.
Vaughan, James R.The Failure of American and British Propaganda in the Middle East, 1945–1957: Unconquerable Minds. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005
Vaughn, Stephen. Holding Fast the Inner Lines: Democracy, Nationalism and the Committee on Public Information. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1980.
Eschen, Penny M.Satchmo Blows Up the World: Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004.
Wagnleitner, Reinhold, Coca-Colonization and the Cold War: The Cultural Mission of the United States in Austria after the Second World War. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1994.
Wagnleitner, Reinhold and Elaine, Tyler May, editors. Here, There and Everywhere: The Foreign Politics of American Popular Culture. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 2000.
Wilford, Hugh. The Central Intelligence Agency, the British Left and the Cold War: Calling the Tune?London: Frank Cass, 2003.
Winkler, Allan M.The Politics of Propaganda: The Office of War Information, 1942–1945. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1978.
Woods, Randall B.Fulbright: A Biography. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
Selected Articles
Cook, Wiesen. “First Comes the Lie: C. D. Jackson and Political Warfare.” Radical History Review 31 (1984): 42–70.
Cull, Nicholas J. “Auteurs of Ideology: United States Information Agency Documentary Film Propaganda in the Kennedy Era as Seen in Bruce Herschensohn's The Five Cities of June (1963) and James Blue's The March (1964).” Film History 10 (1998): 295–310.
Eldridge, David N. “Dear Owen: The Central Intelligence Agency, Luigi Luraschi and Hollywood, 1953.” Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television 20 (2000): 149–96.
Elliott, Kim Andrew. “Too Many Voices of America.” Foreign Policy 77 (1989–90): 113–31.
Haefele, Mark. “John F. Kennedy, United States Information Agency and World Opinion.” Diplomatic History 25 (2001): 63–84.
Koppes, Clayton R. and Gregory, D. Black. “What to Show the World: The Office of War Information and Hollywood, 1942–1945.” Journal of American History 64 (1977): 87–105.
Krenn, Michael L. “‘Unfinished Business’: Segregation and U.S. Diplomacy at the 1958 World's Fair.” Diplomatic History 20, 4 (Fall 1996): 591–612.
Lunenfeld, Peter. “There Are People in the Streets Who've Never Had a Chance to Speak: James Blue and the Complex Documentary.” Journal of Film and Video 46 (1994): 21–33.
Needell, Allan. “Truth Is Our Weapon: Project TROY, Political Warfare and Government–Academic Relations in the National Security State.” Diplomatic History 17 (1993): 399–420.
Nichols, John Spicer. “Wasting the Propaganda Dollar.” Foreign Policy 56 (1984): 129–40.
Ninkovich, Frank. “The Currents of Cultural Diplomacy: Art and the State Department, 1938–1947.” Diplomatic History 1 (1977): 215–37.
Palmer, Allen W. and Edward, L. Carter. “The Smith–Mundt Act's Ban on Domestic Propaganda: An Analysis of the Cold War Statute Limiting Access to Public Diplomacy.” Communication, Law and Policy 11 (2006): 1–34.
Vion, Antoine. “Europe from the Bottom Up: Town Twinning in France during the Cold War.” Contemporary European History II (2002): 623–40.
Weaver, Carolyn. “When the Voice of America Ignores Its Charter.” Columbia Journalism Review 27 (1988): 36–43.
Zhang, Liqing and Dominick, Joseph. “Penetrating the Great Wall: The Ideological Impact of Voice of America Newscasts on Young Chinese Intellectuals of the 1980s.” Journal of Radio Studies 5 (1998): 82–101.
Selected Unpublished Dissertations and Presentations
Belmonte, Laura. “Defending a Way of Life: American Propaganda and the Cold War, 1945–1959.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Virginia, 1996.
Corti, Thomas George. “Diplomat in the Cavier, Charles Wheeler Thayer, 1910–1969.” Ph.D. dissertation, St. Louis University, 1988.
Leventhal, Todd. “The Illegal Transportation and Sale of Human Organs: Reality or Myth?” Presentation to the International Association of Chiefs of Police, Ghent, Belgium, April 1995.
Nguyen, To-Thi. “A Content Analysis of Voice of America Broadcasts to Vietnam.” Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1977.
Parry-Giles, Shawn J. “Exporting America's Cold War Message: The Debate over America's First Peacetime Propaganda Program, 1947–1954.” Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1992.
Schwenck-Borrell, Melinda M. “Selling Democracy: The United States Information Agency's Portrayal of American Race Relations, 1953–1976.” Ph. D. University of Pennsylvania, 2004.
Wolper, Gregg. “The Origins of Public Diplomacy: Woodrow Wilson, George Creel and the Committee on Public Information.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1991.
Web Sites
Center on Public Diplomacy, University of Southern California, http://uscpublicdiplomacy.org/
Library of Congress, http://thomas.loc.gov/
Federation of American Scientists (FAS), http://www.fas.org/
National Aeronautical and Space Agency (NASA), http://www.hq.nasa.gov/
National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) Chile declassification project (tranches II & III), site at Dept of State, http://foia.state.gov/SearchColls/Nara.asp
National Security Archive, George Washington University, http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/
Public Diplomacy Foundation, http://www.publicdiplomacy.org/
CD-ROMs
Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training. The Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection. Arlington, VA: Association for Diplomacy Studies and Training, 2001. (Now accessible on line at http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/diplomacy/)

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