The topics comprising this chapter are empirically among the main ‘core’ psychological topics covered in the behavioural sciences literature with implications for international peace. Each of these areas of psychological study is looked at in turn.

Attitudes

General

Bar-Tal (1997) identifies three categories of variables that determine stereotypic contents and their intensity and extensiveness: (a) background variables (the history of intergroup relations, political-social climate, economic conditions, behaviour of other groups, characteristics of the outgroup and nature of intergroup relations); (b) transmitting variables (political-social-cultural-educational mechanisms, family's channel and direct contact); and (c) the mediating factor of personal characteristics (values, attitudes, personality, motivations and cognitive styles).

Earlier proposals for the reduction of intergroup prejudice were based on the ‘contact hypothesis’ that an increase in social relationships between the members of the ingroup and outgroup would be important. However, Brewer (1997) notes that the apparent instability of cooperative arrangements among ethnic groups in the international area can be understood by noting her concept of ‘optimal distinctiveness’ which provides an explanation for this instability of superordinate groups in terms of competing needs for inclusion and differentiation. In the long run she suggests that groups can maintain both distinctiveness and mutual cooperation. However, Gaertner, Dovidio and Bachman (1996) still maintain that intergroup bias and conflict can be reduced by factors resulting from contact between members of the ingroup and outgroup, that transform members' cognitive representations of the membership from two groups to one more inclusive social entity.