Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-mlc7c Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-20T00:59:19.108Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 11 - White Matter

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 July 2017

Murat Gokden
Affiliation:
University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock
Manoj Kumar
Affiliation:
University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock
Get access
Type
Chapter
Information
Neuropathologic and Neuroradiologic Correlations
A Differential Diagnostic Text and Atlas
, pp. 283 - 310
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2000

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Folkerth, RD, Kinney, HC. Disorders of the perinatal period. In Love, S, Louis, D, Ellison, DW, eds., Greenfields Neuropathology, 8th edn. London: Hodder Arnold, 2008, pp. 256–60.Google Scholar
Vinters, HV, Kleinschmidt-DeMasters, BK. General pathology of the central nervous system. In Love, S, Louis, D, Ellison, DW, eds., Greenfields Neuropathology, 8th edn. London: Hodder Arnold, 2008, pp. 22–6.Google Scholar
Suvarna, S, Layton, C, Bancroft, JD. Bancroft's Theory and Practice of Histological Techniques, 7th edn. Toronto: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier, 2013.Google Scholar
Debette, S, Markus, HS. The clinical importance of white matter hyperintensities on brain magnetic resonance imaging: systematic review and meta-analysis. British Medical Journal. 2010;341:c3666.Google Scholar
Palmer, EE, Mowat, D. Agenesis of the corpus callosum: A clinical approach to diagnosis. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part C, Seminars in Medical Genetics. 2014;166C:184–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edwards, TJ, Sherr, EH, Barkovich, AJ, Richards, LJ. Clinical, genetic and imaging findings identify new causes for corpus callosum development syndromes. Brain: A Journal of Neurology. 2014;137:1579–613.Google ScholarPubMed
Moser, HW, Loes, DJ, Melhem, ER, et al. X-Linked adrenoleukodystrophy: Overview and prognosis as a function of age and brain magnetic resonance imaging abnormality. A study involving 372 patients. Neuropediatrics. 2000;31:227–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moser, HW, Mahmood, A, Raymond, GV. X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy. Nature Clinical Practice Neurology. 2007;3:140–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perlman, SJ, Mar, S. Leukodystrophies. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. 2012;724:154–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Beer, M, Engelen, M, van Geel, BM. Frequent occurrence of cerebral demyelination in adrenomyeloneuropathy. Neurology. 2014;83:2227–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eichler, F, Mahmood, A, Loes, D, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging detection of lesion progression in adult patients with X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy. Archives of Neurology. 2007;64:659–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Santosh Rai, PV, Suresh, BV, Bhat, IG, Sekhar, M, Chakraborti, S. Childhood adrenoleukodystrophy – classic and variant: Review of clinical manifestations and magnetic resonance imaging. Journal of Pediatric Neurosciences. 2013;8:192–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Theda, C, Gibbons, K, Defor, TE, et al. Newborn screening for X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy: Further evidence high throughput screening is feasible. Molecular Genetics and Metabolism. 2014;111:55–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Engelen, M, Kemp, S, Poll-The, BT. X-Linked adrenoleukodystrophy: Pathogenesis and treatment. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports. 2014;14(10):486.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kohlschutter, A. Lysosomal leukodystrophies: Krabbe disease and metachromatic leukodystrophy. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. 2013;113:1611–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lucchinetti, CF, Gavrilova, RH, Metz, I, et al. Clinical and radiographic spectrum of pathologically confirmed tumefactive multiple sclerosis. Brain: A Journal of Neurology. 2008;131:1759–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daroff, RB, Fenichel, GM, Jankovic, J, Mazziotta, J. Bradley's Neurology in Clinical Practice, 6th edn. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders, 2012.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Charil, A, Yousry, TA, Rovaris, M, et al. MRI and the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis: Expanding the concept ofno better explanation”. The Lancet Neurology. 2006;5:841–52.Google Scholar
McDonald, WI, Compston, A, Edan, G, et al. Recommended diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis: Guidelines from the International Panel on the Diagnosis of Multiple Sclerosis. Annals of Neurology. 2001;50:121–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kutzelnigg, A, Lassmann, H. Pathology of multiple sclerosis and related inflammatory demyelinating diseases. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. 2014;122:1558.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Filippi, M, Rocca, MA, Barkhof, F, et al. Association between pathologic and MRI findings in multiple sclerosis. The Lancet Neurology. 2012;11:349–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, JT, Collins, DL, Atkins, HL, et al. Magnetization transfer ratio evolution with demyelination and remyelination in multiple sclerosis lesions. Annals of Neurology. 2008;63:254–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Srinivasan, R, Ratiney, H, Hammond-Rosenbluth, KE, Pelletier, D, Nelson, SJ. MR spectroscopic imaging of glutathione in the white and gray matter at 7 T with an application to multiple sclerosis. Magnetic Resonance Imaging. 2010;28:163–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bramow, S, Frischer, JM, Lassmann, H, et al. Demyelination versus remyelination in progressive multiple sclerosis. Brain: A Journal of Neurology. 2010;133:2983–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lassmann, H, van Horssen, J, Mahad, D. Progressive multiple sclerosis: Pathology and pathogenesis. Nature Reviews Neurology. 2012;8:647–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brito-Zeron, P, Ramos-Casals, M. Advances in the understanding and treatment of systemic complications in Sjogren's syndrome. Current Opinion in Rheumatology. 2014;26:520–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greco, A, De Virgilio, A, Gallo, A, et al. Susac's syndrome – pathogenesis, clinical variants and treatment approaches. Autoimmunity Reviews. 2014;13:814–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanahuja, J, Ordonez-Palau, S, Begue, R, Brieva, L, Boquet, D. Primary Sjogren syndrome with tumefactive central nervous system involvement. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2008;29:1878–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Confavreux, C, Vukusic, S. The clinical course of multiple sclerosis. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. 2014;122:343–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grabner, G, Dal-Bianco, A, Schernthaner, M, et al. Analysis of multiple sclerosis lesions using a fusion of 3.0 T FLAIR and 7.0 T SWI phase: FLAIR SWI. Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging. 2011;33:543–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haacke, EM, Garbern, J, Miao, Y, Habib, C, Liu, M. Iron stores and cerebral veins in MS studied by susceptibility weighted imaging. International Angiology. 2010;29:149–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frischer, JM, Bramow, S, Dal-Bianco, A, et al. The relation between inflammation and neurodegeneration in multiple sclerosis brains. Brain: A Journal of Neurology. 2009;132:1175–89.Google ScholarPubMed
Kepes, JJ. Large focal tumor-like demyelinating lesions of the brain: Intermediate entity between multiple sclerosis and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis? A study of 31 patients. Annals of Neurology. 1993;33:1827.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zagzag, D, Miller, DC, Kleinman, GM, et al. Demyelinating disease versus tumor in surgical neuropathology. Clues to a correct pathologic diagnosis. The American Journal of Surgical Pathology. 1993;17:537–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Genain, CP, Cannella, B, Hauser, SL, Raine, CS. Identification of autoantibodies associated with myelin damage in multiple sclerosis. Nature Medicine. 1999;5:170–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prineas, JW. The Neuropathology of Multiple Sclerosis. New York: Elsevier, 1985.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patani, R, Balaratnam, M, Vora, A, Reynolds, R. Remyelination can be extensive in multiple sclerosis despite a long disease course. Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology. 2007;33:277–87.Google Scholar
Patrikios, P, Stadelmann, C, Kutzelnigg, A, et al. Remyelination is extensive in a subset of multiple sclerosis patients. Brain: A Journal of Neurology. 2006;129:3165–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moll, NM, Rietsch, AM, Thomas, S, et al. Multiple sclerosis normal-appearing white matter: Pathology–imaging correlations. Annals of Neurology. 2011;70:764–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petzold, A, Tozer, DJ, Schmierer, K. Axonal damage in the making: Neurofilament phosphorylation, proton mobility and magnetisation transfer in multiple sclerosis normal appearing white matter. Experimental Neurology. 2011;232:234–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seewann, A, Vrenken, H, van der Valk, P, et al. Diffusely abnormal white matter in chronic multiple sclerosis: Imaging and histopathologic analysis. Archives of Neurology. 2009;66:601–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barnett, MH, Parratt, JD, Cho, ES, Prineas, JW. Immunoglobulins and complement in postmortem multiple sclerosis tissue. Annals of Neurology. 2009;65:3246.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Howell, OW, Rundle, JL, Garg, A, et al. Activated microglia mediate axoglial disruption that contributes to axonal injury in multiple sclerosis. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology. 2010;69:1017–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Horssen, J, Singh, S, van der Pol, S, et al. Clusters of activated microglia in normal-appearing white matter show signs of innate immune activation. Journal of Neuroinflammation. 2012;9:156.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramsaransing, G, Maurits, N, Zwanikken, C, De Keyser, J. Early prediction of a benign course of multiple sclerosis on clinical grounds: A systematic review. Multiple Sclerosis. 2001;7:345–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sturm, D, Gurevitz, SL, Turner, A. Multiple sclerosis: A review of the disease and treatment options. The Consultant Pharmacist. 2014;29:469–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Katrych, O, Simone, TM, Azad, S, Mousa, SA. Disease-modifying agents in the treatment of multiple sclerosis: A review of long-term outcomes. CNS and Neurological Disorders Drug Targets. 2009;8:512–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caracciolo, JT, Murtagh, RD, Rojiani, AM, Murtagh, FR. Pathognomonic MR imaging findings in Balo concentric sclerosis. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2001;22:292–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stadelmann, C, Ludwin, S, Tabira, T, et al. Tissue preconditioning may explain concentric lesions in Balo's type of multiple sclerosis. Brain: A Journal of Neurology. 2005;128:979–87.Google ScholarPubMed
Stachniak, JB, Mickle, JP, Ellis, T, Quisling, R, Rojiani, AM. Myelinoclastic diffuse sclerosis presenting as a mass lesion in a child with Turner's syndrome. Pediatric Neurosurgery. 1995;22:266–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bacigaluppi, S, Polonara, G, Zavanone, ML, et al. Schilder's disease: Non-invasive diagnosis? A case report and review. Neurological Sciences: Official Journal of the Italian Neurological Society and of the Italian Society of Clinical Neurophysiology. 2009;30:421–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yilmaz, Y, Kocaman, C, Karabagli, H, Ozek, M. Is the brain biopsy obligatory or not for the diagnosis of Schilder's disease? Review of the literature. Child's Nervous System: ChNS. 2008;24:36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drori, T, Chapman, J. Diagnosis and classification of neuromyelitis optica (Devic's syndrome). Autoimmunity Reviews. 2014;13:531–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wingerchuk, DM, Lennon, VA, Pittock, SJ, Lucchinetti, CF, Weinshenker, BG. Revised diagnostic criteria for neuromyelitis optica. Neurology. 2006;66:1485–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wingerchuk, DM, Weinshenker, BG. White matter disease: Optimizing rituximab therapy for neuromyelitis optica. Nature Reviews Neurology. 2011;7:664–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenberg, BM, Graves, D, Remington, G, et al. Rituximab dosing and monitoring strategies in neuromyelitis optica patients: Creating strategies for therapeutic success. Multiple Sclerosis. 2012;18:1022–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McKeon, A, Lennon, VA, Lotze, T, et al. CNS aquaporin-4 autoimmunity in children. Neurology. 2008;71:93100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Uzawa, A, Mori, M, Kuwabara, S. Neuromyelitis optica: Concept, immunology and treatment. Journal of Clinical Neuroscience. 2014;21:1221.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lennon, VA, Wingerchuk, DM, Kryzer, TJ, et al. A serum autoantibody marker of neuromyelitis optica: Distinction from multiple sclerosis. Lancet. 2004;364:2106–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lucchinetti, CF, Mandler, RN, McGavern, D, et al. A role for humoral mechanisms in the pathogenesis of Devic's neuromyelitis optica. Brain: A Journal of Neurology. 2002;125:1450–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brinar, VV, Habek, M. Diagnostic imaging in acute disseminated encephalomyelitis. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 2010;10:459–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kelly, JE, Mar, S, D'Angelo, G, et al. Susceptibility-weighted imaging helps to discriminate pediatric multiple sclerosis from acute disseminated encephalomyelitis. Pediatric Neurology. 2015;52:3641.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marin, SE, Callen, DJ. The magnetic resonance imaging appearance of monophasic acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: An update post application of the 2007 consensus criteria. Neuroimaging Clinics of North America. 2013;23:245–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rossi, A. Imaging of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis. Neuroimaging Clinics of North America. 2008;18:149–61; ix.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hynson, JL, Kornberg, AJ, Coleman, LT, et al. Clinical and neuroradiologic features of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis in children. Neurology. 2001;56:1308–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alper, G, Heyman, R, Wang, L. Multiple sclerosis and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis diagnosed in children after long-term follow-up: Comparison of presenting features. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. 2009;51:480–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tenembaum, S, Chamoles, N, Fejerman, N. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: A long-term follow-up study of 84 pediatric patients. Neurology. 2002;59:1224–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Haren, K, Tomooka, BH, Kidd, BA, et al. Serum autoantibodies to myelin peptides distinguish acute disseminated encephalomyelitis from relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. Multiple Sclerosis. 2013;19:1726–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kobayashi, M, Shimizu, Y, Shibata, N, Uchiyama, S. Gadolinium enhancement patterns of tumefactive demyelinating lesions: Correlations with brain biopsy findings and pathophysiology. Journal of Neurology. 2014;261:1902–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young, NP, Weinshenker, BG, Parisi, JE, et al. Perivenous demyelination: Association with clinically defined acute disseminated encephalomyelitis and comparison with pathologically confirmed multiple sclerosis. Brain: A Journal of Neurology. 2010;133:333–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Seze, J, Debouverie, M, Zephir, H, et al. Acute fulminant demyelinating disease: A descriptive study of 60 patients. Archives of Neurology. 2007;64:1426–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwarz, S, Mohr, A, Knauth, M, Wildemann, B, Storch-Hagenlocher, B. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis: A follow-up study of 40 adult patients. Neurology. 2001;56:1313–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, O, Steiner-Birmanns, B, Biran, I, et al. Recurrence of acute disseminated encephalomyelitis at the previously affected brain site. Archives of Neurology. 2001;58:797801.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kao, HW, Alexandru, D, Kim, R, Yanni, D, Hasso, AN. Value of susceptibility-weighted imaging in acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis. Journal of Clinical Neuroscience. 2012;19:1740–1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gibbs, WN, Kreidie, MA, Kim, RC, Hasso, AN. Acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis: Neuroimaging features and neuropathologic diagnosis. Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography. 2005;29:689–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, CA, Adiele, RC, Tham, M, Lucchinetti, CF, Popescu, BF. Early and widespread injury of astrocytes in the absence of demyelination in acute haemorrhagic leukoencephalitis. Acta Neuropathologica Communications. 2014;2:52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, HY, Chang, KH, Kim, JH, et al. Serial MR imaging findings of acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis: A case report. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2005;26:1996–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borlot, F, da Paz, JA, Casella, EB, Marques-Dias, MJ. Acute hemorrhagic encephalomyelitis in childhood: Case report and literature review. Journal of Pediatric Neurosciences. 2011;6:4851.Google Scholar
Karussis, D. The diagnosis of multiple sclerosis and the various related demyelinating syndromes: a critical review. Journal of Autoimmunity. 2014;48–49:134–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuperan, S, Ostrow, P, Landi, MK, Bakshi, R. Acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis vs. ADEM: FLAIR MRI and neuropathology findings. Neurology. 2003;60:721–2.Google ScholarPubMed
Berger, JR. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. 2014;123:357–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berger, JR, Aksamit, AJ, Clifford, DB, et al. PML diagnostic criteria: Consensus statement from the AAN Neuroinfectious Disease Section. Neurology. 2013;80:1430–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chahin, S, Berger, JR. A risk classification for immunosuppressive treatment-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Journal of Neurovirology. 2015; 21:623–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Subramanyam, M, Plavina, T, Khatri, BO, Fox, RJ, Goelz, SE. The effect of plasma exchange on serum anti-JC virus antibodies. Multiple Sclerosis. 2013;19:912–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gutierrez, J, Issacson, RS, Koppel, BS. Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis: An update. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. 2010;52:901–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rima, BK, Duprex, WP. Molecular mechanisms of measles virus persistence. Virus Research. 2005;111:132–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garg, RK, Anuradha, HK, Varma, R, Singh, MK, Sharma, PK. Initial clinical and radiological findings in patients with SSPE: Are they predictive of neurological outcome after 6 months of follow-up? Journal of Clinical Neuroscience. 2011;18:1458–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tomoda, A, Shiraishi, S, Hosoya, M, Hamada, A, Miike, T. Combined treatment with interferon-alpha and ribavirin for subacute sclerosing panencephalitis. Pediatric Neurology. 2001;24:54–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Solomon, T, Hart, CA, Vinjamuri, S, et al. Treatment of subacute sclerosing panencephalitis with interferon-alpha, ribavirin, and inosiplex. Journal of Child Neurology. 2002;17:703–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kleinschmidt-Demasters, BK, Rojiani, AM, Filley, CM. Central and extrapontine myelinolysis: Then … and now. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology. 2006;65:111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singh, TD, Fugate, JE, Rabinstein, AA. Central pontine and extrapontine myelinolysis: A systematic review. European Journal of Neurology. 2014;21:1443–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burcar, PJ, Norenberg, MD, Yarnell, PR. Hyponatremia and central pontine myelinolysis. Neurology. 1977;27:223–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Norenberg, MD, Leslie, KO, Robertson, AS. Association between rise in serum sodium and central pontine myelinolysis. Annals of Neurology. 1982;11:128–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kleinschmidt-DeMasters, BK, Norenberg, MD. Neuropathologic observations in electrolyte-induced myelinolysis in the rat. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology. 1982;41:6780.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kleinschmidt-DeMasters, BK, Anderson, CA, Rubinstein, D. Asymptomatic pontine lesions found by magnetic resonance imaging: Are they central pontine myelinolysis? Journal of the Neurological Sciences. 1997;149:2735.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rojiani, AM, Cho, ES, Sharer, L, Prineas, JW. Electrolyte-induced demyelination in rats. 2. Ultrastructural evolution. Acta Neuropathologica. 1994;88:293–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rojiani, AM, Prineas, JW, Cho, ES. Electrolyte-induced demyelination in rats. 1. Role of the blood–brain barrier and edema. Acta Neuropathologica. 1994;88:287–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Popescu, BF, Bunyan, RF, Guo, Y, et al. Evidence of aquaporin involvement in human central pontine myelinolysis. Acta Neuropathologica Communications. 2013;1:40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldman, JE, Horoupian, DS. Demyelination of the lateral geniculate nucleus in central pontine myelinolysis. Annals of Neurology. 1981;9:185–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Biotti, D, Durupt, D. A trident in the brain, central pontine myelinolysis. Practical Neurology. 2009;9:231–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bose, P, Kunnacherry, A, Maliakal, P. Central pontine myelinolysis without hyponatraemia. The Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. 2011;41:211–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burgetova, A, Vaneckova, M, Seidl, Z, Dolezal, O. Osmotic demyelination syndrome (central pontine and extrapontine myelinolysis with coagulative necrosis of the putamina and cortical laminar necrosis). A case report and review of the literature. The Neuroradiology Journal. 2008;21:521–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kumar, S, Fowler, M, Gonzalez-Toledo, E, Jaffe, SL. Central pontine myelinolysis, an update. Neurological Research. 2006;28:360–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, VE, Stewart, W, Smith, DH. Axonal pathology in traumatic brain injury. Experimental Neurology. 2013;246:3543.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Xu, J, Rasmussen, IA, Lagopoulos, J, Haberg, A. Diffuse axonal injury in severe traumatic brain injury visualized using high-resolution diffusion tensor imaging. Journal of Neurotrauma. 2007;24:753–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, DH, Hicks, R, Povlishock, JT. Therapy development for diffuse axonal injury. Journal of Neurotrauma. 2013;30:307–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, DH, Johnson, VE, Stewart, W. Chronic neuropathologies of single and repetitive TBI: Substrates of dementia? Nature Reviews Neurology. 2013;9:211–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kolias, AG, Guilfoyle, MR, Helmy, A, Allanson, J, Hutchinson, PJ. Traumatic brain injury in adults. Practical Neurology. 2013;13:228–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lamy, C, Oppenheim, C, Mas, JL. Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. 2014;121:1687–701.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Postma, IR, Slager, S, Kremer, HP, de Groot, JC, Zeeman, GG. Long-term consequences of the posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome in eclampsia and preeclampsia: A review of the obstetric and nonobstetric literature. Obstetrical and Gynecological Survey. 2014;69:287300.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tikka, S, Baumann, M, Siitonen, M, et al. CADASIL and CARASIL. Brain Pathology. 2014;24:525–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pantoni, L, Pescini, F, Nannucci, S, et al. Comparison of clinical, familial, and MRI features of CADASIL and NOTCH3-negative patients. Neurology. 2010;74:5763.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cikes, N, Bosnic, D, Sentic, M. Non-MS autoimmune demyelination. Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery. 2008;110:905–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×