The rise of the lute in the Middle Ages

In the Netherlands we first find the lute mentioned in the Middle Ages. The earliest references to the instrument occur in the second half of the 14th century in the accounts of the various princely courts, in which we regularly read that money is withdrawn to pay visiting players or singers who have entertained the lord with their art. The concept of ‘art’ should be taken more widely than became customary later on. In 1396, for instance, we read of enen man, die opter lute speelde ende een zwaert al spelende voer sijn voorhooft sette [a man who played on the lute, and while playing balanced a sword on his forehead]; and in 1375, we hear of two men and a woman who were rewarded by Albrecht of Bavaria, Duke of Hainaut, Holland and Zeeland, for their performance: speldden mit I cziterne daer die vrouwe vp sanck [played on the cittern while the woman sang to it], and who also performed an act with a horse and a monkey (ende spelden mit I perde ende I scemunkel). This performance took place in Le Quesnoy in Hainaut, and the instrument was not a lute but a ghiterne, a related string instrument. Five years later, however, we come across two young men from Bavaria who played on and sang to the leut and ghistierne for Willem van Oostervant, Albrecht's son. Here the ghiterne and the lute were employed together to accompany singing, and possibly also for instrumental intermezzi. In Willem's treasurer's accounts of the same period, there is mention of a certain Argentière and a compagnon qui jua dou leut avoec li et adont mess. Bauduins canta [a companion who played with her on the lute. Whereto Sir Bauduins sang]. Elsewhere we learn that this Bauduins was the court chaplain and secretary to the duke; in other words, an educated clergyman who performed together with a female singer (?) and a lutenist. Another such travelling lute player was the man mentioned in 1389 as arme priester uut Ierlant [a poor priest from Ireland], who played on ene leut.