Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-dh8gc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-16T15:10:54.089Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 9 - Penetrating and branch artery disease

from Part II - Stroke syndromes

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 August 2016

By
Louis R Caplan ,
Geoffrey Donnan  and
Marie Dagonnier
Edited by
Louis R. Caplan
Louis R. Caplan
Affiliation:
Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Massachusetts
Get access

Summary

A summary is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
Caplan's Stroke
A Clinical Approach
 , pp. 287 - 311
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2016

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Fisher, CM: Lacunes, small deep cerebral infarcts. Neurology 1965;15:774–784.Google Scholar
Fisher, CM: The arterial lesions underlying lacunes. Acta Neuropathol 1969;12:1–15.Google Scholar
Besson, G, Hommel, M: Historical aspects of lacunes and the “lacunar controversy”. In Pullicino, PM, Caplan, LR, Hommel, M (eds): Cerebral Small Artery Disease. New York: Raven Press, 1993, pp 1–10.Google Scholar
Hauw, J-J: The history of lacunes. In Donnan, G, Norrving, B, Bamford, J, Bogousslavsky, J (eds): Lacunar and Other Subcortical Infarcts. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995, pp 3–15.Google Scholar
Durand-Fardel, M: Traite des ramollisements du cerveau. Paris: Bailliere, 1843.Google Scholar
Ferrand, J: Essai Sur l’Hemiplegie des Vieillards: Les Lacunes de Desintegration Cerebrale [thesis]. Paris: University of Paris, 1902.Google Scholar
Marie, P: Des foyers lacunaires de desintegration et des differents autres etats cavitaires du cerveau. Rev Med (Paris) 1901;21:281.Google Scholar
Foix, C, Levy, M: Les ramollisements sylviens. Rev Neurol 1927;43:1–51.Google Scholar
Foix, C, Hillemand, P: Contribution a l’etude des ramollisements protuberantiels. Rev Med 1926;43:287–305.Google Scholar
Caplan, LR: Charles Foix – the first modern stroke neurologist. Stroke 1990;21:348–356.Google Scholar
Kolominsky-Rabas, PL, Weber, M, Gefeller, O, Neundoerfer, B, Heuschmann, PU: Epidemiology of ischemic stroke subtypes according to TOAST criteria: Incidence, recurrence, and long-term survival in ischemic stroke subtypes: a population-based study. Stroke 2001;32:2735–2740.Google Scholar
Sacco, S, Marini, C, Totaro, R, Russo, T, Cerone, D, Carolei, A: A population-based study of the incidence and prognosis of lacunar stroke. Neurology 2006;66:1335–1338.Google Scholar
Awad, I, Johnson, PC, Spetzler, RF, Hodak, JA: Incidental subcortical lesions identified on magnetic resonance imaging in the elderly: II. Postmortem pathological correlations. Stroke 1986;17:1090–1097.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, CM: Pure motor hemiplegia of vascular origin. Arch Neurol 1965;13:30–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, CM: Pathological observations in hypertensive cerebral hemorrhage. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1971;30:536–550.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, CM: Cerebral miliary aneurysms in hypertension. Am J Pathol 1972;66:313–324.Google Scholar
Cole, F, Yates, P: Intracerebral microaneurysms and small cerebrovascular lesions. Brain 1966;90:759–767.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenblum, WJ: Miliary aneurysms and “fibrinoid” degeneration of cerebral blood vessels. Hum Pathol 1977;8:133–139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Charcot, J, Bouchard, C: Nouvelles recherches sur la pathogenie de l’hemorrhagie cérébrale. Arch Phys Norm Pathol 1868;1:110–127, 643–665.Google Scholar
Baudrimont, M, Dubas, F, Joutel, A: Autosomal dominant leukoencephalopathy and subcortical ischemic strokes: A clinicopathological study. Stroke 1993;24:122–125.Google Scholar
Lammie, GA, Rakshi, J, Rossor, MN, et al: Cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy – confirmation by cerebral biopsy in two cases. Clin Neuropathol 1995;14:201–206.Google Scholar
Chabriat, H, Bousser, M-G: Cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy. In Donnan, G, Norrving, B, Bamford, J, Bogousslavsky, J (eds): Subcortical Stroke, 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, pp 111–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fukutake, T: Cerebral autosomal recessive arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CARASIL): From discovery to gene identification. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2011;20:85–93.Google Scholar
Oide, T, Nakayma, H, Yanagama, S, Ito, N, Arima, K: Extensive loss of arterial medial smooth muscle cells and mural extracellular matrix in cerebral autosomal recessive arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CARASIL). Neuropathology 2008;28:132–142.Google Scholar
Gould, DB, Phalan, FC, Breedveld, GI, et al: Mutations in COL4A1 cause perinatal cerebral hemorrhage and porencephaly. Science 2005;308:1167–1171.Google Scholar
van der Knaap, MS, Smit, LM, Barkhof, F, et al: Neonatal porencephaly and adult stroke related to mutations in collagen IVA1. Ann Neurol 2006;59:504–511.Google Scholar
Gould, DB, Phalan, FC, van Mil, SE, et al: Role of COL4A1 in small-vessel disease and hemorrhagic stroke. N Engl J Med 2006;354:1489–1496.Google Scholar
Plaisir, E, Gribouval, O, Alamowitch, S, et al: COL4A1 mutations and hereditary angiopathy, nephropathy, aneurysms, and muscle cramps. N Engl J Med 2007;357:2687–2695.Google Scholar
Lanfranconi, S, Markus, HS: COL4A1 mutations as a monogenic cause of cerebral small vessel disease a systematic review. Stroke 2010;41:e513–e518.Google Scholar
Labrune, P, Lacroix, C, Goutieres, F, et al: Extensive brain calcifications, leukodystrophy, and formation of parenchymal cysts: A new progressive disorder due to diffuse cerebral microangiopathy. Neurology 1996;46:1297–1301.Google Scholar
Corboy, JR, Gault, J, Kleinschmidt-Demasters, BK: An adult case of leukoencephalopathy with intracranial calcifications and cysts. Neurology 2006;67:1890–1892.Google Scholar
Duret, H: Conclusion d’un memorie sur la circulation bulbaire. Arch Phys Norm Pathol 1873;50:88–89.Google Scholar
Duret, H: Recherches anatomiques sur la circulation de l’encephale. Arch Phys Norm Pathol 1874;1:60–91, 316–353.Google Scholar
Foix, C, Hillemand, P: Irrigation de la protuberance. Compt Rendu Soc Biol (Paris) 1925;42:35–37.Google Scholar
Foix, C, Hillemand, P: Les artères de l’axe encephalique jusqu’a diencephale inclusivement. Rev Neurol 1925;41:705–739.Google Scholar
Foix, C, Hillemand, P: Irrigation du bulbe. Compt Rendu Soc Biol (Paris) 1924;42:33–35.Google Scholar
Stopford, J: The arteries of the pons and medulla oblongata: I. J Anat Physiol 1915;50:131–164.Google Scholar
Stopford, J: The arteries of the pons and medulla oblongata: II. J Anat Physiol 1916;50:255–280.Google Scholar
Pullicino, PM: The course and territories of cerebral small arteries. In Pullicino, PM, Caplan, LR, Hommel, M (eds): Cerebral Small Artery Disease. New York: Raven Press, 1993, pp 11–39.Google Scholar
Pullicino, PM: Diagrams of perforating artery territories in axial, coronal, and sagittal planes. In Pullicino, PM, Caplan, LR, Hommel, M (eds): Cerebral Small Artery Disease. New York: Raven Press, 1993, pp 41–72.Google Scholar
Fisher, CM, Caplan, LR: Basilar artery branch occlusion: A cause of pontine infarction. Neurology 1971;21:900–905.Google Scholar
Fisher, CM: Bilateral occlusion of basilar artery branches. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1977;40:1182–1189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caplan, LR: Intracranial branch atheromatous disease: A neglected, understudied and underused concept. Neurology 1989;39:1246–1250.Google Scholar
Ostrow, PT, Miller, LL: Pathology of small artery disease. In Pullicino, PM, Caplan, LR, Hommel, M (eds): Cerebral Small Artery Disease. New York: Raven Press, 1993, pp 93–123.Google Scholar
Klein, IF, Lavallee, PC, Touboul, P-J, et al: In vivo middle cerebral artery plaque imaging by high-resolution MRI. Neurology 2006;67:327–329.Google Scholar
Lam, WW, Wong, KS, So, NM, et al: Plaque volume measurement by magnetic resonance imaging as an index of remodeling of middle cerebral artery: Correlation with transcranial color Doppler and magnetic resonance angiography. Cerebrovasc Dis 2004;17:166–169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klein, IF, Lavallee, PC, Schouman-Claeys, E, Amaraenco, P: High-resolution MRI identifies basilar artery plaques in paramedian pontine infarct. Neurology 2005;64:551–552.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, JS, Yoon, Y: Single subcortical infarction associated with parental arterial disease: important yet neglected sub-type of atherothrombotic stroke. Int J Stroke 2013;8:197–203.Google Scholar
Yoon, Y, Lee, DH, Kang, DW, Kwon, SU, Kim, JS: Single subcortical infarction and atherosclerotic plaques in the middle cerebral artery: High-resolution magnetic resonance imaging findings. Stroke 2013;44:2462–2467.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhang, C, Wang, Y, Zhao, X, on behalf of the Chinese Intracranial Atherosclerosis Study Group: Distal single subcortical infarction had a better clinical outcome compared with proximal single subcortical infarction. Stroke 2014;45:2613–2619.Google Scholar
Horowitz, DR, Tuhrim, S, Weinberger, JM, Rudolph, SH: Mechanisms in lacunar infarction. Stroke 1992;23:325–327.Google Scholar
Peress, N, Kane, W, Aronson, S: Central nervous system findings in a tenth-decade autopsy population. Prog Brain Res 1973;40:473–484.Google Scholar
Bang, OY, Heo, JH, Kim, JY, et al: Middle cerebral artery stenosis is a major clinical determinant in striatocapsular deep infarction. Arch Neurol 2002;59:259–263.Google Scholar
Wong, KS, Gao, S, Chan, YL, et al: Mechanisms of acute cerebral infarctions in patients with middle cerebral artery stenosis: A diffusion-weighted imaging and microemboli monitoring study. Ann Neurol 2002;52:74–81.Google Scholar
Bang, OY, Joo, SY, Lee, PH, et al: The course of patients with lacunar infarcts and a parent arterial lesion: Similarities to large artery vs. small artery disease. Arch Neurol 2004;61:514–519.Google Scholar
Baumgartner, RW, Sidler, C, Mosso, M, Georgiadis, D: Ischemic lacunar stroke in patients with and without potential mechanism other than small-artery disease. Stroke 2003;34:653–659.Google Scholar
Boiten, J: Lacunar Stroke: A Prospective Clinical and Radiologic Study [thesis]. Maastricht, 1991.Google Scholar
Yamamoto, Y, Ohara, T, Hamanaka, M, Hosomi, A, Tamura, A, Akiguchi, I: Characteristics of intracranial branch atheromatous disease and its association with progressive motor deficits. J Neurol Sci 2011;304:78–82.Google Scholar
Norrving, B, Cronqvist, S: Clinical and radiologic features of lacunar versus nonlacunar minor stroke. Stroke 1989;20:59–64.Google Scholar
Pullicino, P, Nelson, R, Kendall, B, et al: Small deep infarcts diagnosed on computed tomography. Neurology 1980;30:1090–1096.Google Scholar
Weisberg, L: Computed tomography and pure motor hemiparesis. Neurology 1979;29:490–495.Google Scholar
Donnan, G, Tress, B, Bladin, P: A prospective study of lacunar infarction using computed tomography. Neurology 1982;32:47–56.Google Scholar
Mohr, JP, Caplan, LR, Melski, J: The Harvard Cooperative Stroke Registry: A prospective registry. Neurology 1978;28:754–762.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tuszynski, MH, Petito, CK, Levy, DB: Risk factors and clinical manifestations of pathologically verified lacunar infarctions. Stroke 1989;20:990–999.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Labovitz, DL, Boden-Albala, B, Hauser, WA, Sacco, RL: Lacunar infarct or deep intracerebral hemorrhage. Who gets which? The Northern Manhattan Study. Neurology 2007;68:606–608.Google Scholar
Ikram, MA, Vernooji, MW, Hofman, A, et al: Kidney function is related to cerebral small vessel disease. Stroke 2008;39:55–61.Google Scholar
Pico, F, Labreuche, J, Seilhean, D, et al: Association of small-vessel disease with dilatative arteriopathy of the brain. Neuropathologic evidence. Stroke 2007;38:1197–1202.Google Scholar
Caplan, LR, Young, R: EEG findings in certain lacunar stroke syndromes. Neurology 1972;22:403.Google Scholar
Mohr, JP: Lacunes. Stroke 1982;13:3–11.Google Scholar
Miller, V: Lacunar stroke, a reassessment. Arch Neurol 1983;40:129–134.Google Scholar
Rascol, A, Clanet, M, Manelfe, C, et al: Pure motor hemiplegia: CT study of 30 cases. Stroke 1982;13:11–17.Google Scholar
Donnan, GA, O’Malley, HM, Quang, L, et al: The capsular warning syndrome and lacunar TIAs. In Donnan, G, Norrving, B, Bamford, J, Bogousslavsky, J (eds): Subcortical Stroke, 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, pp 175–184.Google Scholar
Steinke, W, Ley, S: Lacunar stroke is the major cause of progressive motor deficits. Stroke 2002;33:1510–1516.Google Scholar
Caplan, LR: Worsening in ischemic stroke patients: Is it time for a new strategy? Stroke 2002; 33:1443–1445.Google Scholar
Donnan, GA, Norrving, B: Lacunes and lacunar syndromes. Handb Clin Neurol 2009;93:559–575.Google Scholar
Arboix, A, Massons, J, Garcia-Eroles, L, Targa, C, Comes, E, Parra, O: Clinical predictors of lacunar syndrome not due to lacunar infarction. BMC Neurol 2010;10:31.Google Scholar
Vermeer, SE, Longstreth, WT Jr, Koudstaal, PJ: Silent brain infarcts: A systematic review. Lancet Neurol 2007;6:611–619.Google Scholar
Vermeer, SE, Prins, ND, denHeijer, T, Hofman, A, Koudstaal, PJ, Breteler, M: Silent brain infarcts and the risk of dementia and cognitive decline. N Engl J Med 2003;348:1215–1222.Google Scholar
Nelson, R, Pullicino, P, Kendall, B, et al: Computed tomography in patients presenting with lacunar syndromes. Stroke 1980;11:256–261.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richter, R, Bruse, J, Bruun, B, et al: Frequency and course of pure motor hemiparesis: A clinical study. Stroke 1977;8:58–60.Google Scholar
Gobernado, JM, de Molina, AR, Gimeno, A: Pure motor hemiplegia due to hemorrhage in the lower pons. Arch Neurol 1980;37:393.Google Scholar
Mori, E, Tabuchi, M, Yamadori, A: Lacunar syndrome due to intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 1985;16:454–459.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kase, CS: Subcortical haemorrhages. In Donnan, G, Norrving, B, Bamford, J, Bogousslavsky, J (eds): Subcortical Stroke, 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, pp 347–377.Google Scholar
Hommel, M, Besson, G, LeBas, JF, et al: Prospective study of lacunar infarction using magnetic resonance imaging. Stroke 1990;21:546–554.Google Scholar
Besson, G: Les Infarctus Lacunaires: Evaluation Clinique et par l’Imagerie par Resonance Magnetique [thesis]. France: University of Grenoble, 1989.Google Scholar
Kase, CS, Wolf, PA, Hier, DB, et al: Lacunar infarcts: Clinical and CT aspects. The Stroke Data Bank experience. Neurology 1986;36:178–179.Google Scholar
Fisher, CM, Cole, M: Homolateral ataxia and crural paresis, a vascular syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1965;28:48–55.Google Scholar
Fisher, CM: Ataxic hemiparesis. Arch Neurol 1978;35:126–128.Google Scholar
Helgason, CM, Wilbur, AC: Capsular hypesthetic ataxic hemiparesis. Stroke 1990;21:24–33.Google Scholar
Goldblatt, D, Markesbury, W, Reeves, AG: Recurrent hemichorea following striatal lesions. Arch Neurol 1974;32:51–54.Google Scholar
Kase, C, Maulsby, G, DeJaun, E: Hemichorea-hemiballism and lacunar infarction in the basal ganglia. Neurology 1981;31:452–455.Google Scholar
Helgason, C, Wilbur, A, Weiss, A, et al: Acute pseudobulbar mutism due to discrete bilateral capsular infarction in the territory of the anterior choroidal artery. Brain 1988;111:507–524.Google Scholar
Caplan, LR, Schmahmann, JD, Kase, CS, et al: Caudate infarcts. Arch Neurol 1990;47:133–143.Google Scholar
Caplan, LR: Caudate infarcts. In Donnan, G, Norrving, B, Bamford, J, Bogousslavsky, J (eds): Subcortical Stroke, 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, pp 209–223.Google Scholar
Fisher, CM: Capsular infarcts. Arch Neurol 1979;36:65–73.Google Scholar
Helgason, C, Caplan, LR, Goodwin, J, Hedges, T: Anterior choroidal artery territory infarction: Case reports and review. Arch Neurol 1986;43:681–686.Google Scholar
Mohr, JP, Steinke, W, Timsit, SG, et al: The anterior choroidal artery does not supply the corona radiata and lateral ventricular wall. Stroke 1991;22:1502–1507.Google Scholar
Caplan, LR: Anterior choroidal artery territory infarcts. In Donnan, G, Norrving, B, Bamford, J, Bogousslavsky, J (eds): Subcortical Stroke, 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, pp 225–240.Google Scholar
Kumral, E, Evyapan, D, Balkir, K: Acute caudate vascular lesions. Stroke 1999;30:100–108.Google Scholar
Mendez, M, Adams, N, Lewandowski, K: Neurobehavioral changes associated with caudate lesions. Neurology 1989;39:349–354.Google Scholar
Caplan, LR: Vertebrobasilar Ischemia and Hemorrhage: Clinical Findings, Diagnosis and Management of Posterior Circulation Disease. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Bassetti, C, Bogousslavsky, J, Barth, A, Regli, F: Isolated infarcts of the pons. Neurology 1996;46:165–175.Google Scholar
Rothrock, JF, Lyden, PD, Hesselink, JF, et al: Brain magnetic resonance imaging in the evaluation of lacunar stroke. Stroke 1987;18:781–786.Google Scholar
Leestra, JE, Noronha, A: Pure motor hemiplegia, medullary pyramid lesion, and olivary hypertrophy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1976;39:877–884.Google Scholar
Ropper, AH, Fisher, CM, Kleinman, GM: Pyramidal infarction in the medulla: A cause of pure motor hemiplegia sparing the face. Neurology 1979;29:91–95.Google Scholar
Milandre, L, Arnaud, O, Khalil, R: Infarction of the medullary pyramid identified on MRI. Cerebrovasc Dis 1992;2:183–184.Google Scholar
Ho, KL, Meyer, KR: The medial medullary syndrome. Arch Neurol 1981;38:385–387.Google Scholar
Kataoka, S, Hori, A, Shirakawa, T, Hirose, G: Paramedian pontine infarction, neurological/topographical correlation. Stroke 1997;28:809–815.Google Scholar
Kim, JS, Lee, JH, Im, JH, Lee, MC: Syndromes of pontine base infarction, a clinical–radiological correlation study. Stroke 1995;26:950–955.Google Scholar
Fisher, CM: A lacunar stroke, the dysarthria-clumsy hand syndrome. Neurology 1967;17:614–617.Google Scholar
Chung, C-S, Caplan, LR: Pontine infarcts and hemorrhages. In Bogousslavsky, J, Caplan, LR (eds): Stroke Syndromes, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001, pp 520–533.Google Scholar
Helgason, CM, Wilbur, AC: Basilar branch pontine infarctions with prominent sensory signs. Stroke 1991;22:1129–1136.Google Scholar
Caplan, LR, Goodwin, J: Lateral tegmental brainstem hemorrhages. Neurology 1982;32:252–260.Google Scholar
Shintani, S, Tsuroka, S, Shiigai, T: Pure sensory stroke caused by a pontine infarct. Clinical, radiological, and physiological features in four patients. Stroke 1994;25:1512–1515.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, JS, Bae, YH: Pure or predominant sensory stroke due to brainstem lesion. Stroke 1997;28:1761–1764.Google Scholar
Ho, K-L: Pure motor hemiplegia due to infarction of the cerebral peduncle. Arch Neurol 1982;39:524–526.Google Scholar
Bogousslavsky, J, Maeder, P, Regli, F, et al: Pure midbrain infarction: Clinical syndromes, MRI, and etiologic patterns. Neurology 1994;44:2032–2040.Google Scholar
Martin, PJ, Chang, H-M, Wityk, R, Caplan, LR: Midbrain infarction: Associations and aetiologies in the New England Medical Center Posterior Circulation Registry. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998;64:392–395.Google Scholar
Hommel, M, Besson, G: Midbrain infarcts. In Bogousslavsky, J, Caplan, LR (eds): Stroke Syndromes, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001, pp 512–519.Google Scholar
Hommel, B, Besson, G, Pollak, P, et al: Hemiplegia in posterior cerebral artery occlusion. Neurology 1990;40:1496–1499.Google Scholar
Mossuto-Agatiello, L: Caudal paramedian midbrain syndrome. Neurology 2006;66:1668–1671.Google Scholar
Sato, S, Toyoda, K, Kawase, K, et al: A caudal mesencephalic infarct presenting only tetra-ataxia and tremor. Cerebrovasc Dis 2008;25:187–189.Google Scholar
Castaigne, P, Lhermitte, F, Buge, A, et al: Paramedian thalamic and midbrain infarcts: Clinical and neuropathological study. Ann Neurol 1981;10:127–148.Google Scholar
Percheron, G: Les arteres du thalamus humain: II. Arteres et territoires thalamique paramedians de l’arterie basilarie communicante. Rev Neurol (Paris) 1976;132:309–324.Google Scholar
Barth, A, Bogousslavsky, J, Caplan, LR: Thalamic infarcts and hemorrhages. In Bogousslavsky, J, Caplan, LR (eds): Stroke Syndromes, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001, pp 461–468.Google Scholar
Bogousslavsky, J, Miklossy, J, Deruaz, J, et al: Unilateral left paramedian infarction of thalamus and midbrain: A clinicopathological study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1986;49:686–694.Google Scholar
Graff-Radford, NR, Damasio, H, Yamada, T, et al: Nonhaemorrhagic thalamic infarction. Brain 1985;108:495–516.Google Scholar
Bogousslavsky, J, Regli, F, Assal, G: The syndrome of tuberothalamic artery territory infarction. Stroke 1986;17:434–441.Google Scholar
Bogousslavsky, J, Regli, F, Uske, A: Thalamic infarcts: Clinical syndromes, etiology, and prognosis. Neurology 1988;38:837–848.Google Scholar
Tatemichi, T, Steinke, W, Duncan, C, et al: Paramedian thalamo-peduncular infarction: Clinical syndromes and magnetic resonance imaging. Ann Neurol 1992;32:162–171.Google Scholar
Bogousslavsky, J, Caplan, LR: Vertebrobasilar occlusive disease, review of selected aspects. III: Thalamic infarcts. Cerebrovasc Dis 1993;3:193–205.Google Scholar
de Freitas, GR, Bogousslavsky, J: Thalamic infarcts. In Donnan, G, Norrving, B, Bamford, J, Bogousslavsky, J (eds): Subcortical Stroke, 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, pp 255–285.Google Scholar
Kaplan, RF, Estol, CJ, Damasio, H, et al: Bilateral polar artery thalamic infarcts. Neurology 1991;41(Suppl 1):329.Google Scholar
Wall, M, Slamovits, TL, Weisberg, LA, Trufant, SA: Vertical gaze ophthalmoplegia from infarction in the area of the posterior thalamo-subthalamic paramedian artery. Stroke 1986;17:546–555.Google Scholar
Pierrot-Deseiligny, C, Caplan, LR: Eye movement abnormalities. In Caplan, LR, van Gijn, J (eds): Stroke Syndromes 3rd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012, pp 64–74.Google Scholar
Meissner, I, Sapir, S, Kokmen, E, Stein, SD: The paramedian diencephalic syndrome: A dynamic phenomenon. Stroke 1987;18:380–385.Google Scholar
Caplan, LR, DeWitt, LD, Pessin, MS, et al: Lateral thalamic infarcts. Arch Neurol 1988;45:959–964.Google Scholar
Dejerine, J, Roussy, G: Le syndrome thalamique. Rev Neurol 1906;14:521–532.Google Scholar
Fisher, CM: Pure sensory stroke involving face, arm, and leg. Neurology 1965;15:76–80.Google Scholar
Fisher, CM: Thalamic pure sensory stroke: A pathologic study. Neurology 1978;28:1141–1144.Google Scholar
Fisher, CM: Pure sensory stroke and allied conditions. Stroke 1982;13:434–447.Google Scholar
Fisher, CM: Lacunar strokes and infarcts: A review. Neurology 1982;32:871–876.Google Scholar
Hommel, M, Besson, G, Pollak, P, et al: Pure sensory stroke due to a pontine lacune. Stroke 1989;20:406–408.Google Scholar
Mohr, JP, Kase, C, Meckler, R, et al: Sensorimotor stroke. Arch Neurol 1977;34:734–741.Google Scholar
Mohr, JP, Timsit, S: Choroidal artery disease. In Barnett, HJM, Mohr, JP, Stein, BM, Yatsu, F (eds): Stroke, Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management, 3rd ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1998, pp 503–512.Google Scholar
Besson, G, Bogousslavsky, J, Regli, F: Posterior choroidal-artery infarct with homonymous horizontal sectoranopia. Cerebrovasc Dis 1991;1:117–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frisen, I, Holmegaard, L, Rosencrantz, M: Sectorial optic atrophy and homonymous, horizontal sectoranopia: A lateral posterior choroidal artery syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1978;41:374–380.Google Scholar
Neau, JP, Bogousslavsky, J: The syndrome of posterior choroidal artery territory infarction. Ann Neurol 1996;39:779–788.Google Scholar
Loeb, C, Gandolfo, C, Croce, R, Conti, M: Dementia associated with lacunar infarction. Stroke. 1992;23:1225–1229.Google Scholar
Jacova, C, Pearce, LA, Costello, R, et al: Cognitive impairment in lacunar strokes: The SPS3 trial. Ann Neurol 2012;72:351–362.Google Scholar
Makin, SD, Turpin, S, Dennis, MS, Wardlaw, JM: Cognitive impairment after lacunar stroke: Systematic review and meta-analysis of incidence, prevalence and comparison with other stroke subtypes. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2013;84:893–900.Google Scholar
Longstreth, WT Jr, Arnold, AM, Beauchamp, NJ Jr, et al: Incidence, manifestations, and predictors of worsening white matter on serial cranial magnetic resonance imaging in the elderly: The Cardiovascular Health Study. Stroke 2005;36:56–61.Google Scholar
Schmidt, R, Ropele, S, Enzinger, C, et al: White matter lesion progression, brain atrophy, and cognitive decline: The Austrian Stroke Prevention Study. Ann Neurol 2005;58:610–616.Google Scholar
Vermeer, SE, Hollander, M, van Dijk, EJ, Hofman, A, Koudstaal, PJ, Breteler, MM. Silent brain infarcts and white matter lesions increase stroke risk in the general population: The Rotterdam Scan Study. Stroke 2003;34:1126–1129.Google Scholar
Adams, H, Damasio, H, Putnam, S, et al: Middle cerebral artery occlusion as a cause of isolated subcortical infarction. Stroke 1983;14:948–952.Google Scholar
Maki, G, Mihara, H, Shizuka, M, et al: CT and arteriographic comparison of patients with transient ischemic attacks: Correlation with small infarcts of basal ganglia. Stroke 1983;14:276–280.Google Scholar
Caplan, LR, Babikian, V, Helgason, C, et al: Occlusive disease of the middle cerebral artery. Neurology 1985;35:975–982.Google Scholar
Bogousavsky, J, Regli, F, Maeder, P: Intracranial large-artery disease and “lacunar” infarction. Cerebrovasc Dis 1991;1:154–159.Google Scholar
Miyashita, K, Naritomi, H, Sawada, T, et al: Identification of recent lacunar lesions in cases of multiple small infarction by magnetic resonance imaging. Stroke 1988;29:834–839.Google Scholar
Patel, B, Markus, HS: Magnetic resonance imaging in cerebral small vessel disease and its use as a surrogate disease marker. Int J Stroke 2011;6:47–59.Google Scholar
Förster, A, Kerl, HU, Wenz, H, Brockmann, MA, Nölte, I, Groden, C: Diffusion- and perfusion-weighted imaging in acute lacunar infarction: Is there a mismatch? PLoS One 2013;8:e77428.Google Scholar
Bang, OY, Yeo, SH, Yoon, JH, et al: Clinical MRI cutoff points for predicting lacunar stroke may not exist: Need for a grading rather than a dichotomized system. Cerebrovasc Dis 2007;24:520–529.Google Scholar
Rajajee, V, Kidwell, C, Starkman, S, et al: Diagnosis of lacunar infarcts within 6 hours of onset by clinical and CT criteria versus MRI. UCLA MRI Acute Stroke Investigators. J Neuroimag 2008;18:66–72.Google Scholar
Faris, A, Poser, C, Wilmore, D, et al: Radiologic visualization of neck vessels in healthy men. Neurology 1963;13:386–396.Google Scholar
Takahashi, W, Fujii, H, Ide, M, et al: Atherosclerotic changes in intracranial and extracranial large arteries in apparently healthy persons with asymptomatic lacunar infarction. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2005;14:17–22.Google Scholar
Lodder, J, Bamford, J, Kappelle, J, Boiten, J: What causes false clinical prediction of small deep infarcts. Stroke 1994;25:86–91.Google Scholar
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke rt-PA Study Group: Tissue plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 1995;333:1581–1587.Google Scholar
Ingall, TJ, O’Fallon, WM, Asplund, K, et al: Findings from the reanalysis of the NINDS tissue plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke treatment trial. Stroke 2004;35:2418–2424.Google Scholar
Fuentes, B, Martínez-Sánchez, P, Alonso de Leciñana, M, et al. for the Madrid Stroke Network: Efficacy of intravenous thrombolysis according to stroke subtypes: the Madrid Stroke Network data. Eur J Neurol 2012;19:1568–1574.Google Scholar
IST-3 Collaborative Group, Sandercock, P, Wardlaw, JM, Lindley, RI, et al: The benefits and harms of intravenous thrombolysis with recombinant tissue plasminogen activator within 6 h of acute ischaemic stroke (the Third International Stroke Trial (IST-3)): A randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2012;379:2352–2363.Google Scholar
Mustanoja, S, Meretoja, A, Putaala, J, et al. for the Helsinki Stroke Thrombolysis Registry Group: Outcome by stroke etiology in patients receiving thrombolytic treatment: descriptive subtype analysis. Stroke 2011;42:102–106.Google Scholar
Shobha, N, Fang, J, Hill, MD: Do lacunar strokes benefit from thrombolysis? Evidence from the Registry of the Canadian Stroke Network. Int J Stroke 2013;8(Suppl A100):45–49.Google Scholar
Lahoti, S, Gokhale, S, Caplan, LR, et al: Thrombolysis in ischemic stroke without arterial occlusions. Stroke 2014;45:2722–2727.Google Scholar
Griebe, M, Fischer, E, Kablau, M, et al: Thrombolysis in patients with lacunar stroke is safe: an observational study. J Neurol 2014;261:405–411.Google Scholar
Fluri, F, Hatz, F, Rutgers, MP, et al: Intravenous thrombolysis in patients with stroke attributable to small artery occlusion. Eur J Neurol 2010;17:1054–1060.Google Scholar
Dobkin, B: Heparin for lacunar stroke in progression. Stroke 1983;14:421–423.Google Scholar
SPS3 Study Group: Blood-pressure targets in patients with recent lacunar stroke: The SPS3 randomised trial Lancet 2013;382:507–515.Google Scholar
Yamamoto, Y, Akiguchi, I, Oiwa, K, et al: Twenty-four-hour blood pressure and MRI as predictive factors for different outcomes in patients with lacunar infarct. Stroke 2002;33:297–305.Google Scholar
Walters, M, Muir, S, Shah, I, Lees, K: Effect of perindopril on cerebral vasomotor reactivity in patients with lacunar infarction. Stroke 2004;35:1899–1902.Google Scholar
Mohr, JP, Thompson, JLP, Lazar, RM, et al: A comparison of warfarin and aspirin for the prevention of recurrent ischemic stroke. Warfarin–Aspirin Recurrent Stroke Study Group. N Engl J Med 2001;345:1444–1451.Google Scholar
Diener, HC, Cunha, L, Forbes, C, et al: European Stroke Prevention Study 2. Dipyridamole and acetylsalicylic acid in the secondary prevention of stroke. J Neurol Sci 1996;143:1–13.Google Scholar
Gotoh, F, Tohgi, H, Hirai, S, et al: Cilostazole Stroke Prevention Study: A placebo-controlled double-blind trial for secondary prevention of cerebral infarction. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2000;9:147–157.Google Scholar
Furie, KL, Kasner, SE, Adams, RJ, et al: Guidelines for the prevention of stroke in patients with stroke or transient ischemic attack: A guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2011;42:227–276.Google Scholar
Sacco, RL, Diener, HC, Yusuf, S, et al. for the PRoFESS Study Group: Aspirin and extended-release dipyridamole versus clopidogrel for recurrent stroke. N Engl J Med 2008;359:1238–1251.Google Scholar
SPS3 Investigators: Effects of clopidogrel added to aspirin in patients with recent lacunar stroke. N Engl J Med 2012;367:817–825.Google Scholar
Carod-Artal, FJ: Statins and cerebral vasomotor reactivity. Implications for a new therapy. Stroke 2006;37:2446–2448.Google Scholar
Pretnar-Oblak, J, Sabovic, M, Sebestjen, M, et al: The influence of atorvastatin treatment on L-arginine cerbrovascular reactivity and flow-mediated dilatation in patients with lacunar infarction. Stroke 2006;37:2540–2545.Google Scholar
Amarenco, P, Benavente, O, Goldstein, LB, for the Stroke Prevention by Aggressive Reduction in Cholesterol Levels Investigators: Results of the Stroke Prevention by Aggressive Reduction in Cholesterol Levels (SPARCL) Trial by stroke subtypes. Stroke 2009;40:1405–1409.Google Scholar
Stroke Prevention by Aggressive Reduction in Cholesterol Levels (SPARCL) Investigators: High-dose atorvastatin after stroke or transient ischemic attack. N Engl J Med 2006;355:549–559.Google Scholar
Intravenous Magnesium Efficacy in Stroke (IMAGES) Study Investigators: Magnesium for acute stroke (Intravenous Magnesium Efficacy in Stroke Trial): Randomized controlled trial. Lancet 2004;363:439–445.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aslanyan, S, Weir, CJ, Muir, KW, Lees, KR: Magnesium for treatment of acute lacunar stroke syndromes. Further analysis of the IMAGES trial. Stroke 2007;38:1269–1273.Google Scholar
Hachinski, V, Potter, P, Merskey, H: Leuko-araiosis. Arch Neurol 1987;44:21–23.Google Scholar
Okeda, R: Morphometrische Vergleichsuntersuchungen an Hirnarterien bei Binswangerscher Encephalopathie und Hochdruckencephalopathie. Acta Neuropathol (Berlin) 1973;26:23–43.Google Scholar
Caplan, LR: Binswanger’s disease – revisited. Neurology 1995;45:626–633.Google Scholar
Binswanger, O: Die abgrenzung der allgemeinen progressiven paralyse. Klin Wochenschr 1894; 49:1103–1105; 1895;50:1137–1139; 1895;52:1180–1186.Google Scholar
Blass, JP, Hoyer, S, Nitsch, R: A translation of Otto Binswanger’s article: The delineation of the generalized progressive paralysis. Arch Neurol 1991;48:961–972.Google Scholar
Olszewski, J: Subcortical arteriosclerotic encephalopathy. World Neurol 1965;3:359–374.Google Scholar
Caplan, LR, Schoene, WC: Clinical features of subcortical arteriosclerotic encephalopathy (Binswanger’s disease). Neurology 1978;28:1206–1215.Google Scholar
Babikian, V, Ropper, AH: Binswanger disease: A review. Stroke 1987;18:1–12.Google Scholar
Fisher, CM: Binswanger’s encephalopathy: A review. J Neurol 1989;236:65–79.Google Scholar
Ward, NS, Brown, MM: Leukoaraiosis. In Donnan, G, Norrving, B, Bamford, J, Bogousslavsky, J (eds): Subcortical Stroke, 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, pp 47–66.Google Scholar
Maclullich, AM, Wardlaw, JM, Ferguson, KJ, et al: Enlarged perivascular spaces are associated with cognitive function in healthy elderly men. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004;75:1519–1523.Google Scholar
Kim, D-G, Oh, S-H, Kim, J: A case of disseminated polycystic dilated perivascular spaces presenting with dementia and parkinsonism. J Clin Neurol 2007;32:96–100.Google Scholar
Gray, F, Dubas, F, Roullet, E, Escourolle, R: Leukoencephalopathy in diffuse hemorrhagic cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Ann Neurol 1985;18:54–59.Google Scholar
Dubas, F, Gray, F, Roullet, E, Escourolle, R: Leukoencephalopathies arteriopathiques. Rev Neurol 1985;141:93–108.Google Scholar
Loes, D, Biller, J, Yuh, WT, et al: Leukoencephalopathy in cerebral amyloid angiopathy: MR imaging in four cases. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1990;11:485–488.Google Scholar
DeWitt, LD, Louis, DN: Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital: Case 27–1991. N Engl J Med 1991;325:42–54.Google Scholar
Fountain, NB, Eberhard, DA: Primary angiitis of the central nervous system associated with cerebral amyloid angiopathy: Report of two cases and review of the literature. Neurology 1996;46:190–197.Google Scholar
Caplan, LR: Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Case 10–2000. N Engl J Med 2000;342:957–964.Google Scholar
Marotti, JD, Savitz, SI, Kim, W-K, Williams, K, Caplan, LR, Joseph, JT: Cerebral amyloid angiitis progressing to generalized angiitis and leucoencephalitis. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2007;33:1–5.Google Scholar
Davous, P: CADASIL: A review with proposed diagnostic criteria. Eur J Neurology 1998;5:219–233.Google Scholar
Dichgans, M, Mayer, M, Uttner, I, et al: The phenotypic spectrum of CADASIL: Clinical findings in 102 cases. Ann Neurol 1998;44:731–739.Google Scholar
Tournier-Lasserve, E, Joutel, A, Melki, J, et al: Cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy maps on chromosome 19q12. Nat Gen 1993;3:256–259.Google Scholar
Chabriat, H, Levy, C, Taillia, H, et al: Patterns of MRI lesions in CADACIL. Neurology 1998;51:452–457.Google Scholar
Pantoni, L, Poggesi, A, Inzitari, D: The relation between white matter lesions and cognition. Curr Opin Neurol 2007;20:390–397.Google Scholar
Savva, GM, Wharton, SB, Ince, PG, Forster, G, Matthews, FE, Brayne, C: Medical Research Council Cognitive Function and Ageing Study. Age, neuropathology, and dementia. N Engl J Med 2009;360:2302–2309.Google Scholar
Debette, S, Markus, HS: The clinical importance of white matter hyperintensities on brain magnetic resonance imaging: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2010;341:c3666.Google Scholar
van der Flier, WM, van Straaten, EC, Barkhof, F, et al: Small vessel disease and general cognitive function in nondisabled elderly: The LADIS Study. Stroke 2005;36:2116–2120.Google Scholar
Baezner, H, Blahak, C, Poggesi, A, et al: Association of gait and balance disorders with age-related white matter changes: The LADIS Study. Neurology 2008;70:935–942.Google Scholar
The LADIS Study Group 2001–2011: A decade of the LADIS (Leukoaraiosis And DISability) Study: What have we learned about white matter changes and small-vessel disease? Cerebrovasc Dis 2011;32:577–588.Google Scholar
Greenberg, SM, Vonsattel, JPG, Stakes, JW, et al: The clinical spectrum of cerebral amyloid angiopathy: Presentations without lobar hemorrhage. Neurology 1993;43:2073–2079.Google Scholar
Scolding, NJ, Joseph, J, Kirby, PA, et al: Alpha-beta related angiitis: Primary angiitis of the central nervous system associated with cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Brain 2005;128:500–515.Google Scholar
Eng, JA, Frosch, MP, Choi, K, et al: Clinical manifestations of cerebral amyloid-related inflammation. Ann Neurol 2004;55:250–256.Google Scholar
Ginsberg, L, Geddes, J, Valentine, A: Amyloid angiopathy and granulomatous angiitis of the central nervous system: A case responding to corticosteroid treatment. J Neurol 1998;235:438–440.Google Scholar
McHugh, JC, Ryan, AM, Lynch, T, et al: Steroid-responsive recurrent encephalopathy in a patient with cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Cerebrovasc Dis 2007;23:66–69.Google Scholar
Pantoni, L: Cerebral small vessel disease: From pathogenesis and clinical characteristics to therapeutic challenges. Lancet Neurol 2010;9:689–701.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenberg, SM, Vernooij, MW, Cordonnier, C, et al. for the Microbleed Study Group: Cerebral microbleeds: A guide to detection and interpretation. Lancet Neurol 2009;8:165–174.Google Scholar
Wardlaw, JM, Smith, EE, Biessels, GJ, et al. for the STandards for ReportIng Vascular changes on nEuroimaging (STRIVE v1): Neuroimaging standards for research into small vessel disease and its contribution to ageing and neurodegeneration. Lancet Neurol 2013;12:822–838.Google Scholar
Koennecke, HC: Cerebral microbleeds on MRI: Prevalence, associations, and potential clinical implications. Neurology 2006;66:165–171.Google Scholar
Klein, I, Lung, B, Labreuche, J et al. for the IMAGE Study Group: Cerebral microbleeds are frequent in infective endocarditis. Stroke 2009;40:3461–3465.Google Scholar
Yamamoto, Y, Akiguchi, I, Oiwa, K, et al: Adverse effect of nighttime blood pressure on the outcome of lacunar infarct patients. Stroke 1998;29:570–576.Google Scholar
Yamamoto, Y, Akiguchi, I, Oiwa, K, et al: Twenty-four-hour blood pressure and MRI as predictive factors for different outcomes in patients with lacunar infarct. Stroke 2002;33:297–305.Google Scholar
Yamamoto, Y, Akiguchi, I, Oiwa, K, et al: The relationship between 24-hour blood pressure readings, subcortical ischemic lesions and vascular dementia. Cerebrovasc Dis 2005;19:302–308.Google Scholar
Hoshide, Y, Kario, K, Schwartz, JE, et al: Incomplete benefit of antihypertensive therapy on stroke reduction in older hypertensives with abnormal nocturnal blood pressure dipping (extreme-dippers and reverse-dippers). Am J Hypertens 2002;15:844–850.Google Scholar
Chamorro, A, Pujol, J, Saiz, A, et al: Periventricular white matter lucencies in patients with lacunar stroke. A marker of too high or too low blood pressure. Arch Neurol 1997;54:1284–1288.Google Scholar
Schneider, R, Ringelstein, EB, Zeumer, H, et al: The role of plasma hyperviscosity in subcortical arteriosclerotic encephalopathy (Binswanger’s disease). J Neurol 1987;234:67–73.Google Scholar
Chung, C-S, Caplan, LR, van Swieten, J, et al: White matter changes in stroke and fibrinogen levels. Ann Neurol 1993;34:260.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, GA, Sullivan, N, Esiri, MM: White matter damage is associated with matrix metalloproteinases in vascular dementia. Stroke 2001;32:1162–1168.Google Scholar
Adair, JC, Charlie, J, Dencoff, JE, et al: Measurement of gelatinase B (MMP-9) in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with vascular dementia and Alzheimer disease. Stroke 2004;35:e159–e162.Google Scholar
Yang, Y, Estrada, EY, Thompson, JF, et al: Matrix metalloproteinase-mediated disruption of tight junction proteins in cerebral vessels is reversed by synthetic matrix metalloproteinase inhibitor in focal ischemia in rat. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2007;27:697–709.Google Scholar
Brown, WR, Moody, DM, Challa, VR, Thore, CR, Anstrom, JA: Venous collagenosis and arterial tortuosity in leukoaraiosis. J Neurol Sci 2002;15;203–204.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, GA, Bjerke, M, Wallin, A: Multimodal markers of inflammation in the subcortical ischemic vascular disease type of vascular cognitive impairment. Stroke 2014;45:1531–1538.Google Scholar
Arauz, A, Murillo, L, Cantú, C, Barinagarrementeria, F, Higuera, J: Prospective study of single and multiple lacunar infarcts using magnetic resonance imaging: Risk factors, recurrence, and outcome in 175 consecutive cases. Stroke 2003;34:2453–2458.Google Scholar
Dichgans, M, Zietemann, V: Prevention of vascular cognitive impairment. Stroke 2012;43:3137–3146.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×