INTRODUCTION

The giant panda is one of the national treasures of China. Many factors, related primarily to increased human activity, have caused a marked decline and geographic fragmentation of the wild population. To preserve this endangered species, the Chinese government, in partnership with many nongovernmental organisations (inside and outside China), has invested significant human and material resources to benefit in situ conservation. These collective efforts have resulted in the establishment of more than 40 nature reserves in southwest China in the provinces of Sichuan, Gansu and Shaanxi.

Giant pandas have been sporadically maintained in captivity since the Han Dynasty (206 BC to AD 226) (see Chapter 1). However, it was not until the 1940s that there was serious interest in exhibiting the species in China. It took more than 20 years of giant panda husbandry experience to produce the first cub in captivity, at the Beijing Zoo in 1963. Much progress has been made in the subsequent years in understanding basic giant panda biology and making it possible for the species to reproduce consistently in captivity. This chapter reviews the brief history and significance of ex situ breeding efforts for the giant panda.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF EX SITU BREEDING PROGRAMMES FOR THE GIANT PANDA

The giant panda is particularly vulnerable to external pressures, in part because of an inherently slow rate of reproduction.

INTRODUCTION

Historically, the breeding of giant pandas in ex situ programmes has been difficult due to behavioural incompatibility and interanimal aggression. Because some individuals fail to mate naturally, the potential loss of valuable genes is a major concern to effective genetic management (see Chapter 21). Consistently successful artificial insemination (AI) would allow incorporating genetically valuable males with behavioural or physical anomalies into the gene pool. This strategy becomes even more powerful when used in the context of a genome resource bank (GRB), an organised repository of cryopreserved biomaterials (tissue, blood, DNA and sperm) (see Chapter 7). The use of sperm cryopreservation and AI allows the movement of genes among zoos and breeding centres without needing to transfer animals, which is both stressful and costly.

‘Assisted breeding’ refers to the tools and techniques associated with helping a pair of animals propagate, from AI to embryo transfer to cloning, among others (Howard, 1999; Pukazhenthi & Wildt, 2004). With the exception of AI, there is not much need for most other assisted-breeding techniques for the giant panda. As will be demonstrated here, AI is quite adequate for dealing with most cases of infertility or with helping to maintain adequate gene diversity in the captive population. In fact, the major breeding facilities, especially the China Conservation and Research Centre for the Giant Panda (hereafter referred to as the Wolong Breeding Centre) and the Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, routinely use AI to increase pregnancy success.

INTRODUCTION

While many recent advances have been made in the breeding of giant pandas ex situ, historically this species has never reproduced well in captivity. Sexual incompatibility, health problems, low fecundity and a juvenile mortality rate in excess of 70% have contributed to low reproductive success (O'Brien & Knight, 1987; O'Brien et al., 1994; Peng et al., 2001a, b). Wild- and captive-born giant pandas, particularly those captured at a young age, traditionally had difficulty producing offspring in captivity upon becoming adults (Lu & Kemf, 2001). As a result, the ex-situ giant panda population has not been self-sustaining and, until recently, its growth has relied on introducing animals captured from nature. In some cases, this included individuals that appeared ill (rescues) or cubs that were believed to be neglected or abandoned by their mothers. Later field studies, however, revealed that females often leave cubs alone for four to eight hours while foraging, and in one documented case for 52 hours (Lu et al., 1994). Recently, China has placed a general moratorium on capturing wild giant pandas for captive breeding (Lu & Kemf, 2001), a move that forces the breeding community to develop a self-sustaining population.

The goal, however, is not only ensuring demographic self-sustainability but also the maintenance of genetic diversity. The deleterious effects of inbreeding are well recognised (O'Brien, 1994a; Frankham, 1995; Hedrick & Kalinowski, 2001; Frankham et al., 2002).

INTRODUCTION

For more than five decades, various nonhuman primate species have been studied to determine how early rearing experiences influence behaviour in later life. Because of this wealth of information, the nonhuman primate literature is extremely useful for application to the giant panda in developing appropriate methodologies, testing hypotheses and understanding the breadth of behavioural outcomes that might result from different types of early socialisation. Although we recognise the limitations of comparing these distantly related taxa, we believe that the depth of controlled nonhuman primate studies makes comparisons worthwhile and of scholarly interest. Given the close phylogenetic relationship between the giant panda and other carnivores within the superfamily Canoidea (Ewer, 1973; O'Brien et al., 1985), other species within this group may also be useful comparative models, and these are also briefly reviewed.

Giant pandas in captivity can experience inadequate sexual behaviour, maternal behavioural deficits and severe aggression, which is also common to bears, other carnivores and nonhuman primates. It is our general hypothesis that socialisation (particularly the early relationship between mother and cub) is important in the ontogeny of normal social behaviour. Our long-term goal is to develop and evaluate management interventions that will overcome behavioural inadequacies and contribute to creating a naturally reproducing, self-sustaining and genetically viable population (Lindburg et al., 1997; Zheng et al., 1997; Zhang et al., 2000; see also Chapter 21).

Most captive giant pandas are housed, bred and raised in breeding centres and zoos in China.

INTRODUCTION

The goal of the giant panda ex situ breeding programme is to produce healthy, genetically diverse and reproductively sound offspring. However, reproduction in this species has been poor, in part, due to lack of male libido or aggressive behaviours towards conspecific females. Although giant panda breeding facilities have made progress in producing more surviving young, only about 29% of captive male giant pandas have ever sired offspring (Lindburg et al., 1998), and most of these males were wild born. Of the 104 giant pandas in the ex situ population in China in 1996 (at the time of the first masterplanning meeting in China; Zheng et al., 1997; see also Chapter 2), there were 33 adult males of reproductive age (6–26 years old). Only five (15.2%) had ever mated naturally and sired young. This was the main reason for ‘male reproduction’ being a primary target of the Biomedical Survey conducted under the umbrella of the Conservation Breeding Specialist Group (CBSG) (see Chapter 2).

We had three goals, the first being to measure the presence or absence of any obvious physiological or anatomical abnormalities. The second was to learn more about species reproductive biology, specifically comparing males of different ages, successful versus unsuccessful breeders and wild-born versus captive born. Our approach also allowed a third opportunity: studies that would enhance our understanding on how better to use male gametes (sperm) to advance genetic management (see Chapter 21). In this case, our focus was on:

1. sperm morphology and acrosomal integrity;

2. testes development during the breeding season;

3. […]

INTRODUCTION

The new information in this book is largely the product of a series of successful cross-cultural and biological experiments – that is, people with diverse backgrounds and skills working together over time to create scholarly information, which is already being used to enhance giant panda management. Much of the progress is the result of personal relationships that developed during the course of the Survey, which, in turn, provided some valuable lessons about working together in China. Among these is the importance of developing respectful, collegial partnerships. This does not mean a one-time meeting or research study but rather long-lasting relationships that are sustained over many years. This obviously requires substantial investments of time and money, and fierce commitments by all parties. In China, this also means the need for frequent face-to-face interaction.

Remarkably, all of this has transpired to benefit giant pandas, both ex situ and in situ. While this chapter briefly reviews why success occurred, its main purpose is to share new information about the larger impacts of these relationships. In particular, we examine how partnerships involving giant pandas are addressing one of China's most frequently identified needs – capacity building, thereby creating the next generation of skilled biologists and managers devoted to conserving Chinese wildlife and their habitats. Interestingly, zoos are a major force taking many of these steps forward.

WHY SUCCESS TO DATE?

There are three elements responsible for the significant increase in knowledge about giant panda biology, as follows.