We hope that the concluding paragraph of the previous chapter is not our destiny and that the powers of reason will steer us clear of a singular path of destroying all that is valuable. We hope that our history and our traditions will give us the stimulus and the opportunity to explore different ways.

The enormous diversity in our country and our culture are in fact the main keys, which can prevent humans from becoming automated robots and animals or becoming production factories. For all those who believe that being pro-environment is being anti- development, the converse in fact is true. Preserving the environment and the diversity within would lead us on a development path which is more humane, ultimately more sustainable and viable.

Exploring Diverse Ways …

When we talk of diversity in the context of livestock rearing, we do not merely talk of diversity in livestock species, breeds and produce but have to extend the idea to diversity of resources, patterns of rearing, and other aspects which have a direct or indirect bearing on the welfare of animals.

Diversity of livestock species: mixed farming systems

There is enormous sense in mixed or multi-stocking.

• The different animals do not compete for the same resources in a particular area. For instance in an arid area if sheep and camels are raised together, the flock of sheep should be made to graze on the grass while the camels consume tree leaves. This prevents overgrazing of a particular type of fodder.

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The Domestication of Animals

The story of the domestication of animals is over 14 thousand years old. It is believed that the first animals to be domesticated were dogs, presumably as companions to the human race during hunting. Through the years, different species have been domesticated in different parts of the world from their wild progenitors to cater to different human needs of food, fibre, fuel, medicine and transport. In some cases these animals have spread throughout the world. For example, cattle, goats and sheep. In others, they have remained localized in their region of origin like the alpaca, llama, and yaks. Yet others are in a state of semi-domestication like the elephant, mithun, mink and silver fox.

The region of domestication and the need for domestication have given rise to certain distinct patterns of livestock farming. A large number of animals were domesticated around the grasslands of West and Central Asia. These were mainly from the herbivorous species that ate grass: sheep, goats, cattle, horses and camels. Early cattle, sheep and goat rearers were migratory and herded their animals in search of grasslands. When the pressure on grasslands became too much, they migrated in search of fresh pastures or invaded fresh territory. Many major invasions including those of the Mongols are attributed to times when the pressure on grasslands became excessive.

In contrast, species of the forest like the elephant, the water buffalo, pigs and chicken were first domesticated in the region of South Asia and Indo-China in areas which were heavily forested and where plenty of water was available.

Colonization and its Effects on Livestock Rearing

Rulers and dynasties changed and systems developed and evolved as did rural livelihoods but the major changes in livestock rearing practices came with the advent of colonization when the rulers came from a different continent, a different culture, a different race. We now trace the possible impact of colonization on the different livestock rearing practices described earlier.

The effect of colonization on livestock species of domination…elephants, camels and horses

Even as power changed hands, elephants, camels and horses continued to be the species, which symbolized power, wealth and domination. Emperors and kings of the vast and rich subcontinent rode imperiously astride elephants while their retinue rode caparisoned horses and camels. The Mughal emperors regularly bred and reared elephants. According to Vijaylakshmi and Vaidya (1995), the Maharaja of Nepal, Jung Bahadur, till a hundred years ago owned a thousand elephants. This splendour and pomp appealed to the British when they first came to India. Moorhouse (1985) for example, points out to the number of colourful reports of the Grand Durbar where Maharajas and lesser chieftains came borne on these animals whose accoutrements alone were each worth a prince's ransom in precious metals and stones. The daily allowance in Bengal for a full size elephant as decreed by the British Government was 400 lbs of green fodder viz., grasses, branches of trees, sugarcane or in lieu of the above, 200 lbs of dry fodder.

They came to the Indian subcontinent in search of pastures for their animals. Across the cold and rugged mountain ranges, they herded their cattle and their horses and started a civilization which was to have an everlasting impact on the Indian sub continent. The Aryans, who were primarily cattle rearers, found pasture and settlements on the banks of the Himalayan rivers. The favourite food of the Aryans was panch amruth or five nectars based on products derived from milk: ghee, yoghurt and milk itself flavored with honey. Abundance was symbolized by the divine cows…Kamadhenu, Nandini and Surabhi, gifted by the Gods to the sages. The favourite god was a cowherd or Gopal whose descendants the Yadavs still practise a profession started by their ancestors thousands of years ago.

The importance of livestock in the story of human civilization is significant especially with reference to the Indian context. Animals continue to cater to the ever-increasing needs of a single species, the Homo sapien. Livestock and livestock products contribute in some way to every household, the contribution often increasing as one goes down the economic ladder. Livestock rearing forms an important livelihood activity for most Indian farmers supplementing incomes, offering employment opportunities, supporting agriculture as well as contributing to the health and nutrition of millions of households.

The livestock sector accounts for 9 % of the GDP next only to agriculture in the rural sector. However, this sector seldom performs at optimal levels and is riddled with inconsistencies and contradictions.

Framing a policy, even an alternate policy is no easy matter. Ideally, it requires the consensus and participation of a large number of stakeholders. Further, for a livestock policy to be effective, it is equally important that policies governing water, forests, agriculture, land use, energy and environment are effective and in place. Contradictory policies will only defeat each other and negate the effects.

Features of an Alternative Policy

• Planning exercises need to be decentralized so that regional features get consideration. Panchayat raj institutions, Village committees, Forest Management committees, Watershed committees etc, are to be involved in the local level planning exercises.

• Representation of marginalised communities and women in planning exercises.

• Database Management Systems of natural resource to be used for local level planning and decision-making.

• Demand and supply studies need to be initiated at the local level to witness flow of resources within the region. This will further help planning and decision-making.

Capacity Building at Local Levels

For effective decision-making at the village level, the capacities of people here will have to be strengthened.

Local Indigenous Knowledge (I.K) systems to be validated in order that they may be used for capacity building. I.K systems in the fields of animal health, nutrition, management, breeding, housing, forest and grassland management need to be carefully documented, validated and used for training and enhancing the capacities of the local people.

A change in existing systems would require reorienting the way we look at animals, their herders and the healers. It would also require reorienting the programmes designed for them, the interventions planned for them and the way the policies have been formulated.

Reorienting Programmes

Planning with people

When we talk about diversity of systems, it also becomes important to consider the preferences of people living in an area. While a common criticism of our farmers is that they over-stock poor quality animals, and should instead keep few good quality animals, our livestock development schemes are often guilty of promoting the same. Schemes are designed where landless farmers can avail of credit for keeping units of 10 cross-bred dairy cows or 50 goats. Although great care is apparently taken to calculate every last detail they often miss the one major component, which is feed. Landless farmers cannot grow fodder and are therefore dependant on buying fodder if their unit is to succeed. If for some reason the production does not match up to their expectations due to illness, accident, death, which is quite often, the units become non-viable. Schemes are also designed for women from poor households, where the different inputs of fodder, labour and veterinary care are not in place. Market linkages are also weak.

Unfortunately, financial institutions only give credit for schemes designed by them and seldom listen to what people want. Farmers often want very little credit for purchasing one animal or a few chicken.

The diversity in livestock species and breeds and the people who rear them in India is a reflection of the diversity in ecology. The different systems are also a reflection of the forces that influenced the type of system extant. Traditional practices of housing, breeding, nutrition and management were therefore greatly influenced by the agro-ecological diversity of the region, the patterns of rearing and the people who reared them.

Traditional Breeding Practices

Given the large diversity of breeds in the country, one is left in no doubt that careful breeding has gone on for centuries to mould and shape a particular species from its wild state and produce a domesticated species, which yields animal products that can satisfy different needs. There has also been a process of natural selection whereby the strongest animals, or rather in other words, those most resistant to a disease or animals most suitable to a particular environment have survived as breeding stock.

Breeding has always been a selective activity and keeping a quality animal is an expensive proposition. The best breeds were always found belonging to the local rulers. Indian breeds of cattle have attracted international attention from as far back as the nineteenth century when breeds like the Gir, Ongole and Sahiwal were exported to the Americas and Australia under the name Brahman bulls. This was the time when Europe was busy colonizing.

India has the distinction not merely of having a rich and diverse number of animal species, but we also have the distinction of having some of the widest range of breeds within each species, thereby representing a significant percentage of the world's domesticated livestock diversity. Of the breeds found in the world, those found in India are represented below in Table 2.

This rich diversity is directly accounted for by the fact that the subcontinent itself is diverse in culture, in its agro-ecological zones, in social and economic practices. These breeds have developed and evolved over time to suit the different production goals and requirements of these different farmers.

Traditionally, livestock rearing was also distinctly related to castes and communities with specialized groups rearing distinct animal types. Even today these communities continue to rear these animals and therefore any development programme has to take into account these regional differences, preferences and choices.

Major Agro-ecological Zones in the Country and Livestock Practices within Pastoral Systems

Large tracts of the country are semi-arid or arid and frequently threatened by droughts. Sustained agriculture is impossible or extremely difficult. However, these regions border grasslands that are covered by pasture over parts of the year. These are the regions where even today, migratory or semi-migratory systems of livestock rearing continue to be practiced. The species most suitable for migrating is the sheep. Sheep live in groups and herds and are primarily grazers as far as their eating habits.