For over fifty years, human African trypanosomiasis (HAT, sleeping sickness) has been treated with suramin, pentamidine and the very toxic organo-arsenical melarsoprol that was the only drug available for effective treatment of the second stage of the disease. Recently there have been significant efforts using molecular and biochemical approaches to drug design, including high-throughput screening, but the number of lead compounds with promising activity against T. brucei spp. and an acceptable toxicity index has remained astonishingly small. Clinical research continues to be difficult due to the economic constraints and the complexity of trials on a low prevalence disease in remote and impoverished African regions. Despite those limitations the situation for the patients is improving thanks to the combination of a number of critical factors. By the late 1990s the disease had reached epidemic levels that triggered political support. WHO would sign a donation agreement with the manufacturers for all drugs to treat HAT. A result of this agreement was that eflornithine which is much safer than melarsoprol became available and widely used by non-governmental organizations. The Impamel I and II programmes demonstrated that against all odds the conduct of clinical trials on HAT was feasible. This allowed the initiation of trials on combination therapies which eventually resulted in the nifurtimox-eflornithine combination treatment (NECT). This combination is currently being introduced as first line treatment, and there is even the prospect of having a new compound, fexinidazole, in the development pipeline. This review summarizes the key information about the existing drugs and gives a comprehensive summary about the recent and currently ongoing efforts towards new drugs.

Clinical and environmental isolates of pathogens are often unique and may be unculturable, yielding a very limited amount of DNA for genetic studies. Cryptosporidium in particular are difficult to propagate. Whole genome amplification (WGA) is a valuable technique for amplifying genomic material. In this study, we tested 5 WGA commercial kits using Cryptosporidium clinical isolates. DNA of 5 C. hominis and 5 C. parvum clinical isolates and C. parvum IOWA reference strain were used. The majority of the samples were amplified by all of the kits tested. The integrity and fidelity of the amplified genomic DNA were assessed by sequence analysis of several PCR products of varying length. We found evidence that one kit in particular may be more error prone while another seemed the more suitable kit for Cryptosporidium clinical samples, generating high molecular weight DNA from all the samples with high fidelity. Thus WGA was found to be a useful technique for producing amplified DNA suitable for downstream genotyping techniques and archiving of Cryptosporidium clinical isolates.

Kudoid parasites are significant pathogens of marine fish. In the past, specific identification has been difficult due to a paucity of detailed morphological and biological information provided in the original description of some species. However, the introduction of DNA analysis has dramatically improved diagnosis. For morphological characterization, this paper proposes a new set of schematics including additional measurements to give a more thorough description of spore morphology, and provides evidence for uniqueness of 4 new species: Kudoa gunterae n. sp. (from 10 pomacentrid species and 1 apogonid species), K. kenti n. sp. (from 4 pomacentrid species), K. paraquadricornis n. sp. (from 4 carangid species), and K. whippsi n. sp. (from 8 pomacentrid species and 1 apogonid species). Subtle morphological differences found between closely related species were reflected in their genetics, with increased resolution provided by the large subunit, compared with that of the small subunit, of the ribosomal DNA gene region. This article proposes comprehensive requirements for species descriptions within the Kudoidae that incorporate biology, morphology, and genetic sequence.

Neurological involvement following trypanosome infection has been recognised for over a century. However, there are still many unanswered questions concerning the mechanisms used by the parasite to gain entry to the CNS and the pathogenesis of the resulting neuroinflammatory reaction. There is a paucity of material from human cases of the disease therefore the majority of current research relies on the use of animal models of trypanosome infection. This review reports contemporary knowledge, from both animal models and human samples, regarding parasite invasion of the CNS and the neuropathological changes that accompany trypanosome infection and disease progression. The effects of trypanosomes on the blood-brain barrier are discussed and possible key molecules in parasite penetration of the barrier highlighted. Changes in the balance of CNS cytokines and chemokines are also described. The article closes by summarising the effects of trypanosome infection on the circadian sleep-wake cycle, and sleep structure, in relation to neuroinflammation and parasite location within the CNS. Although a great deal of progress has been made in recent years, the advent and application of sophisticated analysis techniques, to decipher the complexities of HAT pathogenesis, herald an exciting and rewarding period for advances in trypanosome research.

Neurocysticercosis (NCC) is the most common parasitic disease of the central nervous system (CNS) caused by the larval form of the tapeworm Taenia solium. NCC has a long asymptomatic period with little or no inflammation, and the sequential progression to symptomatic NCC depends upon the intense inflammation associated with degeneration of larvae. The mechanisms involved in these progressive events are difficult to study in human patients. Thus it was necessary to develop an experimental model that replicated NCC. In this review, we describe studies of a murine model of NCC in terms of the release/secretion of parasite antigens, immune responses elicited within the CNS environment and subsequent pathogenesis. In particular, the kinetics of leukocyte subsets infiltrating into the brain are discussed in the context of disruption of the CNS barriers at distinct anatomical sites and the mechanisms contributing to these processes. In addition, production of various inflammatory mediators and the mechanisms involved in their induction by the Toll-like receptor signaling pathway are described. Overall, the knowledge gained from the mouse model of NCC has provided new insights for understanding the kinetics of events contributing to different stages of NCC and should aid in the formulation of more effective therapeutic approaches.

Highly purified antigen and appropriate controls are essential for antigen-specific immunoassays. In the case of Isospora suis, the causative agent of neonatal porcine coccidiosis, the only current source of antigen is oocysts isolated from faeces. The aim of this study was to develop a procedure for high-grade purification of I. suis oocysts from piglet faeces to obtain both antigen and representative controls suitable for in vitro re-stimulation of lymphocytes. This was achieved by use of filtration, density-gradient centrifugation and fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS). The feasibility for immunological studies was demonstrated with IFN-γ ELISPOT assays after in vitro re-stimulation of lymphocytes from previously infected swine using the obtained antigen. The developed method allowed the production of highly purified antigen and representative controls from faeces with an oocyst recovery rate of 14%. Regarding the application of the obtained material it could be shown that lymphocytes from I. suis-infected pigs react in an antigen-specific manner in terms of an in vitro recall response by the production of IFN-γ. This demonstrates the suitability of the developed method for the production of antigen and controls for sensitive immunological readout systems. Moreover, the detected specific IFN-γ response encourages further functional studies on the cellular immune response to I. suis.

Dientamoeba fragilis is a pathogen of the human gastrointestinal tract that is a common cause of diarrhoea. A paucity of knowledge on the in vitro cultivation and cryopreservation of Dientamoeba has meant that few studies have been conducted to investigate its biology. The objective of this study was to define, for the first time, in vitro culture conditions able to support the long-term in vitro growth of Dientamoeba. Also, we aimed to define a suitable method for cryopreserving viable Dientamoeba trophozoites. A modified BD medium, TYGM-9, Loeffler's slope medium, Robinson's medium, Medium 199, Trichosel and a Tritrichomonas fetus medium were compared, using cell counts, for their ability to support the growth of D. fragilis at various temperatures and atmospheric conditions. Loeffler's slope medium supported significantly better growth compared to other media. A temperature of 42°C and a microaerophilic atmosphere were also optimum for Dientamoeba growth. To our knowledge, this is the first study to describe and compare different culture media and conditions for the growth of clinical isolates of D. fragilis. This new technology will aid the development of diagnostics for dientamoebiasis as well as facilitate large-scale sequencing projects that will fast track molecular studies on D. fragilis.

In order to study the infection dynamics of 2 renal myxozoans, Zschokkella hildae Auerbach, 1910 and Gadimyxa atlanticaKøie, Karlsbakk and Nylund, 2007 in cultured Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua L. aged 3–19 months, a specific single-round PCR assay and a double-label in situ hybridization protocol were developed. The results demonstrated that the 2 myxozoans show spatial separation of their development with regard to spore formation inside the renal tubules versus the collecting ducts and ureters, as well as temporal separation with Z. hildae proliferating and developing spores only once the G. atlantica infection decreases, despite the presence of both myxozoans in the smallest fry studied. These results strongly suggest within-host competition of the 2 myxozoans with potential suppression of Z. hildae by G. atlantica until G. morhua acquires immunity against G. atlantica. The quantification of the G. atlantica infection inside the renal tubules before and after a 29-day experimental growth performance study using fry from hatcheries with differing filtration systems showed that the intensity of infection with G. atlantica seems to be controlled if prolonged exposure to the myxozoan transmission stages takes place from hatching onwards. Surprisingly, growth rates in the trial were inversely affected suggesting that G. atlantica does not negatively influence cod fry growth performance.

Molecular detection of Babesia species in apparently healthy cattle within an endemic region was carried out in order to determine the prevalence of carriers and the geographical distribution of Babesia bigemina and Babesia bovis in Maputo Province, Mozambique. Samples from 477 animals at 5 localities were analysed using 2 techniques, the semi-nested hot-start PCR and the reverse line blot (RLB) assay. With the semi-nested hot-start PCR, detection of B. bigemina ranged between 30% and 89%, and of B. bovis between 27% and 83%. The RLB assay was comparatively less sensitive in this study and detection of B. bovis ranged from 0% to 17%, and B. bigemina was not detected at all by this technique. Analysis of new sequences of the 18S rRNA gene revealed that the current B. bigemina RLB probe is not specific for the identification of isolates in Mozambique. The RLB assay, however, resulted in the detection of 8 other haemoparasite species belonging to the genera Babesia, Theileria, Anaplasma and Ehrlichia. 18S rRNA gene sequences from the Theileria spp. were identified, and a phylogenic tree constructed with these sequences yielded a heterogeneous T. mutans-like group. In conclusion, infection with B. bigemina and B. bovis is endemic in Maputo Province, but rates of transmission vary. Furthermore, mixed infections with the haemoparasites responsible for several tick-borne diseases in cattle are common in Mozambique.

Proteins associated with the schistosome tegument are of great importance for the development of new intervention strategies since they may be exposed on the surface of the parasite. Herein, we have isolated a cDNA clone encoding for the Schistosoma mansoni SmIg and its recombinant protein was tested as a potential vaccine candidate. Initially, its amino acid sequence was analysed by bioinformatics and shown to possess an N-terminal signal peptide, a C-terminal transmembrane helix, 4 glycosylation sites, an immunoglobulin conserved domain and 73% similarity with a hypothetical S. japonicum protein of unknown function. SmIg was produced by E. coli as a recombinant protein (rSmIg) and its protective effectiveness was evaluated against S. mansoni infection with 100 cercariae in a murine model. Mice immunized with rSmIg induced an immune response characterized by dominant IgG1 isotype and significant levels of IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-10 and IL-4. Although immunogenic, the recombinant vaccine failed to induce worm burden reduction when compared to the infected control group. However, rSmIg-immunized mice had significant reductions of liver granuloma volume and fibrosis content by 31·8% and 49%, respectively. In conclusion, SmIg is a new tegument protein from S. mansoni that plays an important role in reducing pathology induced by parasite infection.

Faecal specimens from diarrhoeic pre-weaned calves (n=61) and lambs (n=127) collected over a 1-year period (2008–2009) at 27 cattle and 28 sheep farms in Galicia (NW Spain) were examined for the presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts and positive specimens were selected for molecular examination. Overall, 30 calves (49·2%) and 39 lambs (30·7%) tested positive for Cryptosporidium by microscopy. PCR products of the SSU rRNA locus were obtained for 27 Cryptosporidium positive calf isolates and 23 lamb isolates. Restriction analyses generated profiles of C. parvum in all isolates except for 9 lamb specimens from 5 farms that yielded banding patterns and sequences indicative of the Cryptosporidium cervine genotype. Sequence analyses of the glycoprotein (GP60) gene revealed that all but 1 C. parvum isolate from calves belonged to the subtype IIaA15G2R1 and 1 isolate was identified as the novel subtype IIaA13G1R1. Two different subtypes were identified in sheep flocks including IIaA16G3R1, which was seen in 7 lamb isolates from a single farm and subtype IIaA15G2R1, identified in 3 isolates from 2 farms. These findings suggest a limited genetic diversity within C. parvum in ruminant livestock from this geographical area, although both calves and lambs should be considered as a reservoir for zoonotic subtypes.

Intraerythrocytic parasites (Apicomplexa: Sarcocystidae) of the South American mouse opossum (Thylamys elegans) from Chile, South America, and of the yellow-bellied glider (Petaurus australis) from Australia were found to be monophyletic using SSU rDNA and partial LSU rDNA sequences. Phylogenetic reconstruction placed both species within the family Sarcocystidae. These intraerythrocytic parasites of marsupials represent an as yet unnamed genus predicted to have bisporocystic oocysts and tetrazoic sporocysts, which is a characteristic feature of all members of the family Sarcocystidae. These results show that erythrocytic parasites share a common ancestor and suggest co-evolution with their vertebrate host.

Leishmania spp. are sandfly-transmitted protozoa parasites that cause a spectrum of diseases in humans. Many enzymes involved in Leishmania central carbon metabolism differ from their equivalents in the mammalian host and are potential drug targets. In this review we summarize recent advances in our understanding of Leishmania central carbon metabolism, focusing on pathways of carbon utilization that are required for growth and pathogenesis in the mammalian host. While Leishmania central carbon metabolism shares many features in common with other pathogenic trypanosomatids, significant differences are also apparent. Leishmania parasites are also unusual in constitutively expressing most core metabolic pathways throughout their life cycle, a feature that may allow these parasites to exploit a range of different carbon sources (primarily sugars and amino acids) rapidly in both the insect vector and vertebrate host. Indeed, recent gene deletion studies suggest that mammal-infective stages are dependent on multiple carbon sources in vivo. The application of metabolomic approaches, outlined here, are likely to be important in defining aspects of central carbon metabolism that are essential at different stages of mammalian host infection.

Recombinant NcPDI(recNcPDI), NcROP2(recNcROP2), and NcMAG1(recNcMAG1) were expressed in Escherichia coli and purified, and evaluated as potential vaccine candidates by employing the C57Bl/6 mouse cerebral infection model. Intraperitoneal application of these proteins suspended in saponin adjuvants lead to protection against disease in 50% and 70% of mice vaccinated with recNcMAG1 and recNcROP2, respectively, while only 20% of mice vaccinated with recNcPDI remained without clinical signs. In contrast, a 90% protection rate was achieved following intra-nasal vaccination with recNcPDI emulsified in cholera toxin. Only 1 mouse vaccinated intra-nasally with recNcMAG1 survived the challenge infection, and protection achieved with intra-nasally applied recNcROP2 was at 60%. Determination of cerebral parasite burdens by real-time PCR showed that these were significantly reduced only in recNcROP2-vaccinated animals (following intraperitoneal and intra-nasal application) and in recNcPDI-vaccinated mice (intra-nasal application only). Quantification of viable tachyzoites in brain tissue of intra-nasally vaccinated mice showed that immunization with recNcPDI resulted in significantly decreased numbers of live parasites. These data show that, besides the nature of the antigen, the protective effect of vaccination also depends largely on the route of antigen delivery. In the case of recNcPDI, the intra-nasal route provides a platform to generate a highly protective immune response.

Some Kudoa species display variations in the number of polar capsules in spores within an individual pseudocyst. Nonetheless, there is usually a dominant morphotype which forms a significant element of diagnosis. In 2007, a Kudoa isolate from whiting (spores with 5 (dominant) or 6 (minor) polar capsules) was characterized by Burger et al. (2007) as being 100% identical in SSU rDNA to Kudoa yasunagai (spores with 7 polar capsules) from a halibut, despite its obvious morphological differences. The authors hypothesized that either SSU rDNA had reached its level of resolution or that the genetic identity revealed conspecificity. To further investigate these hypotheses, SSU and LSU rDNA sequence data were coupled with principal components, correlation, and regression analyses of morphometric data from different kudoid isolates that infect brain tissue to determine the relationships between spore morphotypes and different kudoid isolates. The trends in morphometrics between the spores of particular isolates were so similar that it was concluded that the molecular results did indicate conspecificity rather than SSU reaching its level of resolution. This phenotypic influence on a significant diagnostic character within the Kudoidae has a major impact on the diagnosis of this, and potentially other, pathogenic species.

To address whether a fish host is involved in the life cycles of malacosporeans of the genus Buddenbrockia, cohabitation experiments with different bryozoan and fish species were conducted. Samples were analysed by malacosporean-specific PCR, partial sequencing of the 18S rDNA, and light and electron microscopy. Co-habitation challenges with bryozoans resulted in malacosporean infections detected mainly in the kidney of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus). Sequences of the minnow parasite and of worm-like Buddenbrockia stages in Plumatella repens were identical and showed 99·5% similarity to Buddenbrockia plumatellae and 96·3% similarity to the sequence obtained from carp. One sample, comprising 4–5 zooids of statoblast-raised bryozoans cohabitated with infected carp was PCR-positive, but no overt infection could be observed in the remaining colony. Light and electron-microscopy of kidney samples of infected minnows revealed single cells within kidney tubules, whereas in carp, sporogonic stages were found in kidney tubules. Phylogenetic analysis of the Buddenbrockia spp. known to date placed the carp-infecting species at the base of the B. plumatellae clade, but low posterior probability makes this node questionable. The present study showed that Buddenbrockia spp. were able to infect cyprinid fish, showing stages in kidney-tubules strikingly similar to those of T. bryosalmonae.

ABC systems are one of the largest described protein superfamilies. These systems have a domain organization that may contain 1 or more transmembrane domains (ABC_TM1F) and 1 or 2 ATP-binding domains (ABC_2). The functions (e.g., import, export and DNA repair) of these proteins distinguish the 3 classes of ABC systems. Mining and PCR-based cloning were used to identify 33 putative ABC systems from the Brugia malayi genome. There were 31 class 2 genes, commonly called ABC transporters, and 2 class 3 genes. The ABC transporters were divided into subfamilies. Three belonged to subfamily A, 16 to subfamily B, 5 to subfamily C, 1 to subfamily E and 3 to subfamilies F and G, respectively. None were placed in subfamilies D and H. Similar to other ABC systems, the ABC_2 domain of B. malayi genes was conserved and contained the Walker A and B motifs, the signature sequence/linker region and the switch region with the conserved histidine. The ABC_TM1F domain was less conserved. The relative abundance of ABC systems was quantified using real-time reverse transcription PCR and was significantly higher in female adults of B. malayi than in males and microfilaria, particularly those in subfamilies B and C, which are associated with drug resistance.

Objective. RhD-positive subjects are protected against toxoplasmosis-associated impairment of psychomotor performance. Here we searched for RhD-positivity-associated maternal protection against the effects of toxoplasmosis. Methods. In the present retrospective cohort study, we analysed data from 785 (139 RhD-negative) Toxoplasma-free and 194 (27 RhD-negative) Toxoplasma-infected pregnant women. We searched for effects of toxoplasmosis and Rhd-phenotype on maternal weight before pregnancy, pregnancy weight gain, fetal ultrasound data (biparietal diameter, abdominal circumference, femur length) and on birth length and weight. Results. At pregnancy week 16, the RhD-negative mothers with toxoplasmosis gained more weight than others (P<0·001). The difference of about 1600 g remained approximately constant from pregnancy week 16 until the end of pregnancy. Neither toxoplasmosis nor RhD phenotype had any effect on fetal bioparameter data or birth length and weight. Conclusion. The most parsimonious explanation for the observed data is that the RhD-positive phenotype might protect infected subjects against a broad spectrum of detrimental effects of latent toxoplasmosis, including excessive gestational weight gain.

Parasites that often grow anaerobically in their hosts have adopted a fermentative strategy relying on the production of partially oxidized end products, including lactate, glycerol, ethanol, succinate and acetate. This review focuses on recent progress in understanding acetate production in protist parasites, such as amoebae, diplomonads, trichomonads, trypanosomatids and in the metazoan parasites helminths, as well as the succinate production pathway(s) present in some of them. We also describe the unconventional organisation of the tricarboxylic acid cycle associated with the fermentative strategy adopted by the procyclic trypanosomes, which may resemble the probable structure of the primordial TCA cycle in prokaryotes.

This study investigated the ability of the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, to act as a carrier or reservoir of the protistan Bonamia ostreae. Studies were carried out independently in Ireland and in Spain. Naïve C. gigas were exposed to B. ostreae both in the field and in the laboratory via natural exposure or experimental injection. Naïve flat oysters, Ostrea edulis, were placed in tanks with previously exposed C. gigas. Oysters were screened for B. ostreae by examination of ventricular heart smears and by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) screening of tissue samples (gill and/or heart) and shell cavity fluid. PCR-positive oysters were further screened using histology and in situ hybridization (ISH). B. ostreae DNA was detected in the tissues and/or shell cavity fluid of a small number of C. gigas in the field and in the laboratory. B. ostreae-like cells were visualized in the haemocytes of 1 C. gigas and B. ostreae-like cells were observed extracellularly in the connective tissues of 1 other C. gigas. When C. gigas naturally exposed to B. ostreae were held with naïve O. edulis, B. ostreae DNA was detected in O. edulis; however, B. ostreae cells were not visualized. In Spain, B. exitiosa DNA was also detected in Pacific oyster tissues. The results of this study have important implications for C. gigas transfers from B. ostreae-endemic areas to uninfected areas and highlight B. ostreae and B. exitiosa's ability to survive extracellularly and in other non-typical hosts.