Protoparmelia hypotremella van Herk, Spier & Wirth, a sterile corticolous lichen, is described as a species new to science, so far known from Austria, SW Germany and the Netherlands. It is rapidly spreading in Germany and the Netherlands. It is apparently close to P. oleagina, and is often found growing together with that species on oak trees along roads in the Netherlands. Both species are host to the lichenicolous fungi Sphinctrina anglica and Tremella wirthii.

Lecanora pseudogangaleoides spec. nov. is a saxicolous lichen in southeastern Australia. It fits anatomically into the L. subfusca group (=Lecanora s.str.), but differs from most previous concepts of that group in containing usnic acid in addition to atranorin. The presence of usnic acid is now considered to be of less importance in that group, and species containing usnic acid may well belong to Lecanora s.str. Within L. pseudogangaleoides chemical variation with respect to the presence of xanthones was observed and two subspecies are distinguished. Lecanora pseudogangaleoides s.str. lacks xanthones, whereas L. pseudogangaleoides subsp. verdonii subsp. nov. contains the arthothelin chemosyndrome in addition to the normal occurrence of the psoromic acid chemosyndrome. A key orthe distinction of L. pseudogangaleoides and similar species is included.

The lichen genus Ochrolechia found in China is revised. Twenty taxa are accepted in the genus, including four described as new to science: Ochrolechia alticola, differing from O. mexicana by the larger ascospores and the absence of lichexanthone, and from O. africana by the C+ red reaction of the apothecial margin cortex, the absence of 5-O-methylhiascic acid, and its alpine habitat; O. lijiangensis, differing from O. longispora by the larger apothecia and smaller ascospores, and by the presence of an additional undetermined fatty acid; O. longispora, differing from O. trochophora by the larger ascospores and the presence of two fatty acids; and O. rugomarginata, differing from O. pallescens in the minutely verruculose margins of the mature apothecia, the absence of variolaric acid and the C+ red thallus cortex, and from O. trochophora var. trochophora by the presence of alectoronic acid in the apothecial medulla, the coarsely pruinose disc and a preference for the bark of coniferous trees. Four new taxa are reported for China: Ochrolechia arborea, O. mahluensis, O. szatalaënsis and O. trochophora var. pruinirosella. An identification key to all taxa in the genus known from China is provided.

Eight new species of Pyrenulaceae are described as new to science from Brazil, Guyana and Puerto Rico. Pyrenula sanguineomeandrata Aptroot & Mercado Diaz (with a thallus with red, KOH+ purple pigmentation of lines or a reticulum, simple ascomata with vertical ostioles, a deep red inspersed, KOH+ orange hamathecium, and dark brown 3-septate ascospores 25–29×10–12 μm) and P. sanguineostiolata Aptroot & Mercado Diaz (with a thallus with deeply immersed simple ascomata with vertical ostioles, which are superficial and bright red, and 3-septate ascospores 25–28×9–12 μm) are described from submontane evergreen forests in Puerto Rico. Pyrenula biseptata Aptroot & M. Cáceres (with simple ascomata with vertical ostioles, an inspersed hamathecium and 2-septate ascospores 11–12×4·5–5·0 μm) and P. xanthinspersa Aptroot & M. Cáceres (with an ecorticate thallus containing lichexanthone, simple ascomata with vertical ostioles, not inspersed hamathecium and 3-septate ascospores 14–17×6·0–7·5 μm) are described from rainforest in Amazonian Brazil. Pyrenula subvariabilis Aptroot & Sipman (with fused ascomata with lateral ostioles and submuriform ascospores 17–20(–25)×6–9 μm) and Sulcopyrenula biseriata Aptroot & Sipman (with a thallus containing lichexanthone, simple ascomata with lateral ostioles and lozenge-shaped ascospores with 8 locules, (13–)15–17(–20)×8–10 (width)×6–7 (thickness) μm) are described from savannahs in Guyana. Special attention is paid to the genus Pyrgillus: two new species from the 3-septate core group of this small genus are described from Brazil, viz. P. aurantiacus Aptroot & M. Cáceres (with a corticate thallus containing lichexanthone, mazaedium with orange, KOH+ violet, UV+ red pruina and ascospores of 13–16×6·0–7·5 μm) and P. rufus Aptroot & M. Cáceres (with a corticate thallus containing lichexanthone, mazaedium with dark red, KOH+ orange, UV+ red pruina and ascospores of 15·0–17·5×5·0–6·5 μm). An updated key to the 3-septate species of Pyrgillus is provided.

Photosynthetic organisms have evolved a great variety of mechanisms to optimize their use of sunlight. Some of the clearest examples of adaptations can be seen by comparing photosynthesis in different species and in different individuals of the same species that grow under high and low light levels. While the adaptations of sun and shade higher plants have been relatively well studied, much less information is available on the photobionts of lichenized Ascomycetes. An important adaptation that can protect photosynthetic organisms from the potentially harmful effects of excess light is non-photochemical quenching (NPQ); NPQ can dissipate unused light energy as heat. Here we used chlorophyll fluorescence to compare the induction and relaxation of NPQ and the induction of electron transport (rETR) in collections of the same lichen species from exposed and from more shaded locations. All species have trebouxioid photobionts and normally grow in more exposed microhabitats but can also be readily collected from more shaded locations. Shade forms display generally higher NPQ, presumably to protect lichens from occasional rapid increases in light that occur during sunflecks. Furthermore, the NPQ of shade forms relaxes quickly when light levels are reduced, presumably to ensure efficient photosynthesis after a sunfleck has passed. The maximal relative electron transport rate is lower in shade than sun collections, probably reflecting a downregulation of photosynthetic capacity to reduce energy costs. We also compared collections of pale and melanized thalli from three species of shade lichens with Symbiochloris as their photobiont. Interestingly, NPQ in melanized thalli from slightly more exposed microhabitats induced and relaxed in a way that resembled shade rather than sun forms of the trebouxioid lichens. This might suggest that in some locations melanization induced during a temporary period of high light may be excessive and could potentially reduce photosynthesis later in the growing season. Taken together, the results suggest that lichen photobionts can flexibly adjust the amount and type of NPQ, and their levels of rETR in response to light availability.

The molecular phylogeny of Bacidia s.s. in the Russian Far East was investigated using 62 nucleotide sequences from the ITS nrDNA region, 22 of which were newly obtained. Phylogenetic reconstructions employed Bayesian inference and maximum likelihood searches using MrBayes and RAxML. In addition, ITS2 secondary structures added further support using Compensatory Base Changes. As a result of morphological and phylogenetic studies, four new species of Bacidia are described. Bacidia areolata sp. nov. belongs to the suffusa group. It was collected once in Khabarovskiy Krai, the Russian Far East, on the bark of Acer tegmentosum and is closely related to B. suffusa but differs in having a smooth, cracked to areolate thallus and shorter spores. Bacidia elongata sp. nov. is a member of the fraxinea group and is similar to B. fraxinea but differs in having a wide zone of cells with enlarged lumina along the edge of the exciple. In fact, this zone of enlarged cells, in combination with its overall habit, places it morphologically close to B. suffusa, B. millegrana and B. campalea. Bacidia kurilensis sp. nov. is a basal member of the laurocerasi group and closely related to B. biatorina, B. heterochroa, B. laurocerasi and B. salazarensis. However, the combination of a granular thallus, large black apothecia and a green hue in the upper part of the exciple edge as well as in the epihymenium sets it apart from the species mentioned above. Bacidia sachalinensis sp. nov. resolves as a strongly supported member of the polychroa group and is known from a single locality in Sakhalin, the Russian Far East. Its thallus structure and apothecium colour are variable, which is typical for the polychroa group, but it differs from B. polychroa by having shorter spores with fewer septa and a mainly smooth to areolate thallus.

The new species Austrella isidioidea, which is unique in the genus in having isidioid structures on the thallus lobe ends as well as apothecia lacking a thalline margin, is described from the Falkland Islands. A collection with an identical mtSSU rDNA sequence to A. arachnoidea but with significant morphological differences (viz. a variable apothecial margin ranging from an arachnoid hyphal weft to a corticated regular margin) is reported from Îles Kerguelen. The phylogenetic and biogeographical implications of these new records are discussed.

Phylloblastia inexpectata Sérus., Coppins & Lücking is a newly described foliicolous lichen, known from England, Scotland, Southern Italy and Madeira. It is distinguished from similar and related species by the absence of isidia and the smaller size of its ascospores. Phylloblastia pocsii is reported from Papua New Guinea for the first time.

The cyanolichen genus Epiphloea is currently included within the Heppiaceae (Lichinomycetes) based on ascus characteristics. The presumed presence of a prototunicate ascus has been used as support for this classification, despite the incongruence with other characters (e.g. spores). Here, we use a molecular phylogeny of the two markers mtSSU rDNA and Mcm7 to investigate the position of Epiphloea. In addition, we have re-investigated the ascus characteristics. Our results place the two species, Epiphloea byssina and E. terrena, within the Collemataceae, nested in Leptogium s. str. The ascus type in both species is shown to be Lecanoralean and similar to the ascus in other Collemataceae, with a strongly amyloid tube-like structure. This observation supports the placement within Lecanoromycetes and refutes the earlier suggested affinities with Heppiaceae and Lichinomycetes. The correct names for these species are Leptogium byssinum and Leptogium terrenum.

A new lichenicolous fungus Buelliella lecanorae Suija & Alstrup, found on epiphytic Lecanora, is described from Estonia.

In order to confirm and investigate the extent of reported mismatches between chemotypes and molecular sequence data in Bryoria fuscescens s. lat., we examined 15 morphologically similar thalli from each of three Pinus forest sites in the Sistema Central of central Spain. Three thalli were rejected due to infections by Phacopsis huuskonenii (not previously published from Spain). The remaining 42 thalli represented nine ITS rDNA haplotypes and four chemotypes (by TLC): fumarprotocetraric and protocetraric acids; norstictic and connorstictic acids; psoromic acid; and fumarprotocetraric, protocetraric and psoromic acids. The molecular phylogenetic tree was characterized by extremely short branch lengths, often only with a single mutational difference, and a single haplotype could have different chemical products. In some cases, adjacent specimens represented different chemotypes, and three thalli appeared to be mixed individuals. Consistency of both molecular and chemical data within individual specimens was demonstrated by examining four different parts of each thallus, which showed only a difference in the location of psoromic acid in some. This is the first population-level study of this taxon, and so it is premature to propose taxonomic changes at this time. Further populations in different parts of the geographical range of this widespread complex now need to be analyzed, and more sensitive chemical analyses conducted, in order to understand the basis of the variability and determine the appropriate taxonomic treatment.

Two asexual reproductive strategies of the common lichen Pseudevernia furfuracea are described. Although the species propagates mainly by isidia, some specimens also show the development of soralia. Morphological, chemical and molecular analyses were performed on three such sorediate specimens from the Canary Islands, Morocco and Turkey. Maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood and Bayesian analyses indicate that: a) sorediate samples represent only a morphological variant of the reproductive mode and b) the separation of taxa (at species level or below) on the basis of their containing either olivetoric acid or physodic and oxyphysodic acids is not appropriate. In addition, a phylogenetic reconstruction of the genus Pseudevernia is presented for the first time. The tree shows two sister monophyletic clades, one containing American species (P. intensa, P. cladonia, P. consocians), and the second encompassing the P. furfuracea samples (including sorediate specimens). The biological and taxonomic significance of soralia in sorediate samples is discussed.

The name Polycoccum opulentum proves to have been wrongly applied to a lichenicolous fungus belonging to the genus Lichenothelia, and which differs from the type material of P. opulentum in having non-ostiolate broadly stipitate ascomata and narrow ascospores with a conspicuous gelatinous sheath. The Lichenothelia represents an hitherto undescribed species, named here as L. renobalesiana, sp. nov. which is associated with verrucarialean lichens on hard limestones in temperate regions. The true P. opulentum is known only from the original collection on Polyblastia hyperborea from Sweden.

Two species of Verrucariaceae, Endocarpon globosum Harada & L.-S. Wangsp. nov., and Staurothele yunnana Harada & L.-S. Wang sp. nov., are described. Both grow on stones submerged in a stream on Meili Snow Mountain in NW Yunnan, China.

We explored lichen species richness and patterns of lichen succession on rough barked Nothofagus cunninghamii trees and on smooth barked Atherosperma moschatum trees in cool temperate rainforests in Victoria, Australia. Nothofagus cunninghamii trees from the Yarra Ranges, and A. moschatum trees from Errinundra were ranked into size classes (small, medium, large and extra-large), and differences in species richness and composition were compared between size classes for each tree species. Nothofagus cunninghamii supported a rich lichen flora (108 trees, 52 lichen species), with the largest trees supporting a significantly higher number of species, including many uncommon species. This success was attributed to varying bark texture, stand characteristics and microhabitat variations as the trees age. Atherosperma moschatum supported a comparable number of species (120 trees, 54 lichen species). Indeed on average, this host supported more lichen species than N. cunninghamii. However, successional patterns with increasing girth were not as clear for A. moschatum, possibly due to the more stable microclimate that this smooth barked host provided. Victorian cool temperate rainforests exist primarily as small, often isolated pockets within a sea of Eucalypt-dominated, fire-prone forest. Many are regenerating from past disturbance. We find that protection of Victoria's oldest rainforest pockets is crucial, as they represent sources of rare, potentially threatened lichen species, and may be acting as reservoirs for propagules for nearby ageing rainforests. Indeed, even single, large old trees have conservation importance, as they may provide exceptional microhabitats, not found elsewhere in the regenerating rainforest environment.

Three new species of Atla are described from calcareous rocks in northern Finland based on morphology and ITS sequences. All new species have dark brown spores but have smaller perithecia and spores than previously known brown-spored species of Atla. Atla tibelliorum sp. nov. resembles Sporodictyon arcticum, but has a dark brown exciple and larger spores. Atla oulankaensis sp. nov. and A. vitikainenii sp. nov. differ from A. alpina in the smaller perithecia and spores. Atla vitikainenii has an involucrellum often slightly diverging from the exciple. Atla oulankaensis is similar to A. vitikainenii, differing in slightly narrower spores and in having some involucrella incurving under the exciple or even enveloping the exciple. An unidentified ITS sequence from Canada obtained from GenBank most probably belongs to A. oulankaensis and another unidentified sequence from the USA to A. tibelliorum. The new results strengthen the conclusion that the genera of Atla and Sporodictyon cannot be separated by morphology alone. A key to all known species of Atla and Sporodictyon is provided.