Using two Gallup polls, which together contained three questions on the attitudes of adult Americans towards population growth and control, a multivariate analysis was conducted of the relationship to each question of nine demographic factors: age, city size, education, family income, occupation of the household head, race, region, religion and sex. Only education and religion showed an intrinsic relationship with attitudes. Specifically, the extent of endorsement of the view that the world population growth rate is a serious problem, and of the view that population limitation will, at some time, be necessary, increased with education. Among those whose family income was at least $10,000 and those whose house-hold head was a professional or business executive, Protestants were more likely than Catholics to view US and world population growth rates as serious and to consider population limitation necessary.

I will preface these remarks by saying that I am a fierce believer in the fundamental equality of the sexes—after all, I am told that they are both necessary for the survival of the human race—or at least this seems to be so at the moment, though the way things are going it might at some time cease to be so. A second caveat is that I am not going to pretend to talk about the whole field of attainment, it would be inevitable that one would say too little about too much. However, if any of the audience wish to ask questions about any aspect of the topic in which they are interested I shall attempt to answer.

Free access to contraception and effective legislation measures, have resulted in a decline in fertility in Singapore. A new population policy of ‘three children or more if you can afford it’ was therefore introduced in 1986. This paper discusses the new population policies and measures their effect on fertility in Singapore.

The present study of 329 Australian and 281 Papua New Guinean (PNG) high school youth compared students' perceptions of the economic role of children, the importance of personal aspirations, evidence of support for the conjugal family and for cultural props. As predicted, the economic role of children was more important to PNG students, and considerably less so to young Australians. Predicted differences in personal aspirations were less clear cut, but young Australians cited more frequently the restrictions and economic costs in having children. In addition, Australians emphasized more than PNG students the pleasure, pride, fulfilment and achievement in having children. As expected in a low fertility country, Australian students mentioned more often the love and companionship of children, although students in both countries had similar views about the impact of children upon the marital relationship. Lineage and religious benefits from children were more salient to PNG youth.

In a survey of Swiss couples, the husband-wife agreement on contraception (current use, and methods ever used) is high and husbands are generally as well informed on the use of contraceptive methods as their wives. The data indicate that the use of condoms may be underestimated in interviewing women only and that the contraceptive behaviour of a couple is related to the fertility preferences of both wife and husband.

In a survey in Coventry of 1079 post-natal patients, 11% (104) of married women and 46% (32) of single women stated that this birth was unwanted and emotionally distressing. The married women with unwanted births were the same age as other married women, but had substantially larger families. The single women with unwanted births were younger and all had left school at 16 years or below. Ten per cent of married women and 28% of single women with unwanted births had no knowledge of contraception and 28% of married women and 78% of single women with unwanted births had not used any contraceptive methods. Seventy-six per cent of married women and 78% of single women with unwanted births would have liked further professional advice.

The aim of this study was to assess gender differences in the prevalence non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and in associated health-related habits, weight status and common risk factors in Botswana. Data were from the cross-sectional, population-based Botswana STEPS Survey II conducted in 2014. A total sample of 2947 survey participants aged 25–64 years were included the study. The results showed that a statistically significant higher percentage of men used tobacco compared with women (34.4%, 95% CI: 33.5–35.1 vs 4.4%, 95% CI: 4.3–4.5). Men also had consistently and statistically significantly greater heavy alcohol consumption and lower fruit and/or vegetable consumption than women. Physical inactivity among women was higher than in men. Controlling for other factors, men had a higher probability of being overweight (28.7%, 95% CI: 28.6–28.8 vs 18.3%, 95% CI: 18.0–18.6) and obese (25.8%, 95% CI: 25.4–26.2 vs 10.2%, 95% CI: 9.9–10.5) than women. Women were at a greater risk of developing NCDs compared with men since their adjusted prevalence of having at least three common risk factors was higher than men’s. Women had a higher adjusted predicted prevalence of suffering from hypertension than men (39.4%, 95% CI: 38.9–40.0 vs 26.1%, 95% CI: 25.5–26.8). Appropriate policies and programmes need to be adopted to urgently address the problem of NCDs in Botswana.

Morbidities and mortalities caused by malaria are still a serious issue in Nigeria, with the country accounting for 25% of malaria morbidities and 24% of malaria mortalities globally in 2018. Treated bed nets reduce the incidence of malaria, but not all Nigerians use them. This study aimed to examine the factors associated with treated bed net usage, including perceived severity of malaria, and the rural–urban differences in the relationship between socio-demographic factors and use of treated bed nets in Nigeria. The analytic sample size comprised 40,693 women aged 15–49 years. Poisson regression and bivariable and multivariable analyses were used to test the study hypothesis that women who agreed that malaria could potentially lead to death would be more likely to adopt malaria preventive measures, including treated bed net use. About 48% of the women slept under a treated mosquito net the night before the survey. Those who perceived that malaria could lead to death had a higher likelihood of using a treated bed net in the urban, rural and combined samples. However, in the multivariable model, the association between perceived malaria severity and use of a treated bed net was only significant for rural women (APR=0.964, 95% CI: 0.933, 0.996). The results unexpectedly suggest that rural Nigerian women who perceive malaria to be severe have a lower likelihood of using treated bed nets. Also, rural–urban variations in the relationship between the socio-demographic variables and use of treated bed nets were observed. Policies should consider the observed rural–urban dichotomy in the influence of perceived severity of malaria and other socio-demographic factors on women’s use of treated bed nets in Nigeria.

This study aimed to evaluate the proportion of contraception users among Lebanese youth, and the extent of knowledge and perception on birth control; and to raise awareness and sensitise young adults to sexual health, which remains taboo in Lebanon. The 30-item questionnaire was broadcasted to students in private and public universities in Lebanon, through social media and it collected information on contraception use and student knowledge. Over 30% of responders were medical students, and 41% have ever used contraceptives (mostly women); among which, 52.1% for contraception versus 47.9% for medical reasons. According to responders, the pill ranked high in terms of effectiveness (72.4% of responders perceive the pill as effective), followed by the male condom (69.1%) and the hormonal intrauterine device (29.6%). Some would not use contraception in the future, for religious reasons (30.8%) or for fear of complications (46.2%); indeed, around a third of contraceptive users (all female) have experienced adverse effects. Finally, students expressed concern about long-term complications of contraceptive use (pulmonary embolism/phlebitis, breast/endometrial/ovarian cancer, stroke, depression and myocardial infarction). Though less frequent than in the Western world, contraception use in Lebanon is non-negligible and gaps in university students’ knowledge on contraception were identified; which should prompt sexual education and family planning initiatives in Lebanon.

Tuberculosis (TB) is a globally widespread disease, with approximately a quarter of the world’s population currently infected (WHO, 2018). Some risk factors, such as HIV status, nutrition and body mass index, have already been thoroughly investigated. However, little attention has been given to behavioural and/or psychological risk factors such as stress and education level. This study investigated the risk factors for TB diagnosis by statistical analyses of publicly available data from the most recent wave of the Indonesian Family Life survey (IFLS-5) conducted in 2015. Out of 34,249 respondents there were 328 who reported having TB. For comparison and completeness, variables were divided into levels: individual-, household- and community-level variables. The most prominent and interesting variables found to influence TB diagnosis status (on each level) were investigated, and a logistic regression was subsequently developed to understand the extent to which each risk factor acts as a predictor for being diagnosed with TB. Age, health benefit or insurance, stress at work and living in a rural area all showed significant association with TB diagnosis status. This study’s findings suggest that suitable control measures, such as schemes for improving mental health/stress reduction and improved access to health care in rural areas should be implemented in Indonesia to address each of the key factors identified.

People who are overweight and obese suffer from significant health impacts that have increased globally. Concurrently, usage of information and communication devices such as television and mobile phones have also been growing, affecting people’s weight. This study examined the association between watching television and owning a mobile phone with overweight and obesity among reproductive-aged women in low- and lower-middle-income countries (LLMICs). Data of 21 LLMICs reported between 2015 and 2020 were collected from the Demographic and Health Surveys. Multivariate logistic regression was performed to determine the association into three pooled segments: a group of 21 countries, the World Bank income classification and the regional categorisation of the countries. The all-inclusive prevalence of overweight or obesity was found at 27.1% among 175,370 reproductive-aged women, and this prevalence varied among countries. Overall, the odds of being overweight or obese were 1.20 (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]=1.20, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.15–1.24), 1.40 (AOR=1.40, 95% CI: 1.35–1.44) and 1.18 (AOR=1.18, 95% CI: 1.03–1.35) times higher among those who watched television less than once a week, at least once a week and almost every day, respectively, compared with those who did not watch television. Besides, women’s mobile phone ownership is more likely to experience overweight or obesity (AOR=1.72, 95% CI: 1.67–1.77). Consistent results were found for the countries categorised according to the World Bank income and regional classification. Focus on sedentary behaviour, such as television watching and mobile phone use, of women and regional or country-specific innovative strategies and programs are of great immediate importance to decrease the prevalence of overweight and obesity.

Despite a significant drop in maternal mortality in Bangladesh, unsafe abortion remains a critical maternal health issue that could be reduced by promoting menstrual regulation (MR). This study aimed to investigate the prevalence and determinants of MR use among ever-married women as well as to identify the socioeconomic inequalities in MR use in Bangladesh. The latest Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey (BDHS) 2017-18 data were used in this study. We used a sub-sample of 12,586 ever-married women aged 15 to 49 years for this study. To identify the determinants of MR, multilevel (mixed-effect) binary logistic regression analysis was used while accounting for potential between-clusters variations. The weighted prevalence of MR was 7.64% (95% CI: 7.19 - 8.12). Women of aged 20-29 years (AOR: 2.50, 95% CI: 1.46, 4.30) and ≥ 30 years (AOR: 4.17, 95% CI: 2.39, 7.26), from urban areas (AOR: 1.24, 95% CI: 1.04, 1.47), having one or two children (AOR: 1.96, 95% CI: 1.25, 3.09) and ≥ 3 children (AOR: 2.26, 95% CI: 1.40, 3.65), who used traditional contraceptive method (AOR: 1.39, 95% CI: 1.12, 1.73), and from Barishal division (AOR: 1.44, 95% CI: 1.08, 1.93) were more likely to have MR. Women were less likely to have MR if they were from Chittagong (AOR: 0.62, 95% CI: 0.46, 0.84) and Mymensingh (AOR: 0.51, 95% CI: 0.36, 0.73) divisions. MR use was found to be higher among higher socioeconomic status (SES) groups as the concentration index (CIX) value was positive and the Lorenz curve lay below the line of equality (CIX: 0.095, p<0.001). Health policy and intervention design should prioritize minimizing socioeconomic inequities concerning MR services.

Knowledge of inbreeding levels in historical times is necessary to estimate the health consequences of past inbreeding, and to contextualize the current public debate about cousin marriage in Britain. This research aims to calculate the level of cousin marriage using the intensive technique of multi-source parish reconstitution and to determine whether village organization, religion and occupational class influenced the level of consanguineous marriage. A wide variety of documentary sources were used to create extensive pedigrees of spouses in over 800 marriages in the 19th century in the rural villages of Stourton and Kilmington. The closed village of Stourton had higher levels of inbreeding than the open village of Kilmington. Catholics had lower rates of 1st cousin marriage but higher rates of 2nd cousin marriage than Protestants. Farmers had higher levels of 1st cousin marriage than labourers. The levels of consanguinity in south-western Wiltshire in the 19th century were related to the economic structure of the villages and the religion and social class of the spouses.

Leg length in humans is considered to be an indicator of the long-term impact of quality of childhood living conditions and nutritional status. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the magnitude of association of percentage body fat (PBF) with relative subischial leg length (RSLL), adjusting for age, sex and body mass index (BMI), among adolescents and adults in a population of poor socioeconomic background in India. Data were taken from a cross-sectional study conducted in 2010–2014 among the Limbu community of Darjeeling, West Bengal – an indigenous community with poor socioeconomic background, low literacy rate, low income and inadequate living conditions. The study villages were located in the Himalayan and sub-Himalayan regions of Darjeeling. The present study sample comprised 97 adolescents aged 16–19 years (47 boys, 50 girls) and 260 adults aged 20–39 years (135 men, 125 women). Anthropometric measurements of stature/height (cm), weight (kg), sitting height (cm) and skinfold thicknesses (biceps, triceps, subscapular, suprailiac) (mm) were recorded. Derived variables were BMI (kg/m2), subischial leg length (SLL) (cm), RSLL (%), sum of four skinfolds (mm) and PBF (%). Significant sex differences at p<0.05 were observed for all anthropometric characteristics, except for body weight among adolescents and RSLL, subscapular and sum of four skinfolds in adults. The linear regression models adjusting for age and sex showed that RSLL had a negative relationship with PBF (p<0.05) among adolescents and adults. Higher body fat, independent of BMI, was correlated with lower RSLL among both adolescents and adults from the Limbu community, indicating a possible association with poor quality living conditions in childhood. However, this may also have been due to the allometry of total body fat with body proportions – a relatively larger trunk results in more body fat.

Until very recently physical anthropology has been more or less exclusively concerned with the study of the evolutionary origins of man and with race. During the first half of this century a vast body of literature accumulated describing the physical characteristics of the world's many populations, both past and present, and classifying these populations into races. Innumerable classifications appeared, which not only varied according to their authors' views as to which race a particular population should be ascribed but also, very strikingly, in the number of races that were considered as compounding the human species. Some recognized as few as three or four, others as many as thirty or more. No small effort was spent in searching for methods to ascribe individuals to one race or another and some people were regarded as being more ‘typical’ of a particular race than others.

Casual heterosexual sex remains a significant contributor to HIV transmissions in Ghana. The study used data from the 2008 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey (GDHS) to assess the socio-demographic, economic and spatial factors influencing unprotected casual heterosexual sex among men and women. The results of the binary logistic regression models revealed that women aged 35–44 had significantly higher odds of engaging in unprotected casual heterosexual sex than those aged 15–24, unlike the men. There were significantly lower odds of unprotected casual heterosexual sex for women and men with exposure to print media compared with those without exposure. Compared with men residing in the Western Region, unprotected casual heterosexual sex was significantly less likely among those in the Upper East Region. There is the need for behavioural change campaigns in Ghana that take into consideration the multiplicity of factors that determine unprotected casual heterosexual sex.

In a multi-centre survey in 1986, 400 married Filipino women aged 15–40 were interviewed about their use of contraceptive methods, and specifically about their perceptions of the effects on health of oral contraceptives and their attitudes to contraceptive methods. The sample was randomly selected in the urban and rural areas surveyed and cannot be considered representative for the country as a whole. The results showed that women hold definitive views on the health risks posed by oral contraceptives and point to the importance of family planning clinics as a source of contraceptive counselling. The overall rate of contraceptive use must be regarded as insufficient to meet contraceptive needs.

A survey of 673 consecutive Papua New Guinean parturients at the Port Moresby General Hospital, in May and June 1990, showed that 28% had ever used a family planning (FP) method, chiefly a hormonal method (93% of ever-users). Only seventeen of 239 (7·1%) nulliparae had ever used an FP method, compared with 170 of 434 (39·2%) parous subjects. Education of mother and of husband were independently and significantly associated with FP ever-use. Seventeen (4·9%) of 347 women who had a surviving child, had not breast-fed the child. The interval between the birth of the surviving child and the start of the index pregnancy was significantly associated with the duration of breast-feeding; the longer the duration of breast-feeding, the longer the inter birth interval.