Cowpea, Vigna unguiculata (Walp) and beans, Phaseolus vulgaris are attacked by several insect pests worldwide. The pests include economically important borers, the control of which often requires the use of more than one tactic. In Africa, the major borer species of cowpea is Manica vitrata Fab. (syn. M. testulalis [Geyer]); in Southeast Asia and eastern Africa the beanfly or bean stem maggot complex, Ophiomyia spp., is important on beans. The bean borer, Etiella zinckenella (Treitschke), is also of considerable importance in Asia. In South America Epinotia apotema (Wals) and Cydia fabivora (Meyrick) are the most important borers on beans, while Helicoverpa armigera (Hïbner) and M. vitrata to a lesser degree are important on beans in some parts of Africa. Presently, only chemical control provides complete protection against crop borers, but despite its usually favourable cost-to-benefit ratio, insecticide use is not a sustainable option. Other tactics such as cultural control, host plant resistance and the use of beneficial organisms are more dependable in the long-term. They form the core of the new vision for environmentally friendly pest management, or bio-intensive pest management, which minimises the use of synthetic insecticides. In recent times, research efforts directed at these measures have been intensified. This paper discusses the various interventions and presents different IPM models on how they can be combined to optimise the control of borers. Suggestions are made on the future outlook of IPM on cowpea and beans.

The essential oil extracts of six Malaysian plants, i.e. Curcuma longa, Zingiber officinale, Pandanus odorus, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Syzygium aromaticum and Cymbopogon citratus, were evaluated for repellent activity against Periplaneta americana using a modification of the ‘two-cylinders’ method. Dose-dependent repellency ranging from 57.1 to 100% was exhibited by all six extracts at the lowest concentration tested (12 ppm).

One hundred and five okra cultivars were evaluated in the field for resistance to the leafhopper Amrasca biguttula biguttula (Ishida) during the 1989–1990 season. On the basis of nymphal abundance and leafhopper injury index two resistant (Siswal Local and IC 7194) and nine moderately resistant [IC 6653, IC 8899, IC 13617, Sel. 1, HB 94, IC 6316,6 Dhari, Sel. 2–2 and Line 6(1)] genotypes were identified. Both of the resistant, two moderately resistant (Line 6(1) and IC 13617) and two highly susceptible (Pusa Sawani and Pusa Reshmi) genotypes were retested in 1990–1991. Resistant genotypes had significanlty (P < 0.05) fewer nymphs (18.5 to 22.0 nymphs/leaf) and lower values of injury index (2.2) compared with the other varieties. Nymphal duration was also longer (9.3 to 9.8 days) and nymphal survival lower (41.7 to 47.5%) in resistant cultivars. Higher trichome density, longer trichome length and higher concentration of sugars, silica, potassium, tannins and phenols in the leaves of resistant cultivars were associated with resistance to leafhopper.

Diaeretiella rapae (M'cintosh) was the only parasitoid of the cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae L., during studies reported here.

Percentage parasitism of B. brassicae ranged from 27.1 to 76.1% in studies carried out around Nairobi area during 1978/79. It was highest during the month of September, when the aphid population density had reached maximum, and lowest in May when aphid numbers were low. High parasitism coincided with a decline in aphid population.

Because of these high levels of parasitism and other attributes of the parasitoid, it was concluded that D. rapae played a significant role in suppressing populations of B. brassicae and should be taken into consideration in any control programme aimed at protecting brassica crops against aphid pests in Kenya.

In the present study, we aimed to assess the suitability of predatory parameters, namely voracity, consumption index, conversion efficiency and growth rate, as measures of prey suitability. For this purpose, fourth-instar larvae and 10-day-old adult females of four co-occurring ladybirds, namely Coccinella septempunctata (L.) (C7), C. transversalis F., Cheilomenes sexmaculata (F.) and Propylea dissecta (Mulsant), fed on two essential species of aphid prey, Aphis craccivora Koch and Lipaphis erysimi (Kaltenbach), were observed. The results revealed that, with the exception of C7, the other three ladybirds performed better on A. craccivora. Previous studies based on reproductive and developmental attributes have also shown that A. craccivora is a more suitable prey for these three ladybirds, indicating a strong correlation and affirming the viability of using these measures as a mark of prey suitability. In a similar manner, fourth instars and adult females of C7 performed better on L. erysimi over A. craccivora. This detectable difference in consumption and utilization of aphid prey species by the four ladybirds indicates that these predatory parameters can be used as tools for assessing prey suitability in ladybirds.

Powdered maize cobs were tested as an alternative for pesticide use in stored maize. Five doses (2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 g/250 g seed) of powdered maize cobs applied at particle sizes of 1.4 and 0.4 mm diameter were compared with actellic powder against Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky for 120 days. Mortality and survival data showed that cob powders did not act as fumigant but exerted a potent inhibition of progeny on direct contact with S. zeamais adults. The particle size of powdered cobs had no effect on maize damage and losses. At doses equal to or higher than 6 g powdered maize cobs/250 g grain maize, i.e. 2.4% (w/w), damage to grain was < 5% and weight losses < 1%. The protection offered at the highest dose was comparable to the pesticide control. The use of powdered maize cobs is discussed as a natural alternative to synthetic pesticides for protection of maize against S. zeamais.

Galerucella placida Baly feeds on the rice-field weed Polygonum orientale L. (Polygonaceae) in India and Bangladesh during autumn and winter seasons. The insect is widely available during the winter season when the temperature fluctuates between 9 and 24 °C. Hence, it is of considerable interest to study how the adults cope with the stress resulting due to temperature fluctuations. Consequently, we analysed the levels of H2O2, antioxidant enzymes [catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidases (POD), guaiacol peroxidase (GPX), pyrogallol peroxidases (PPX), ascorbate peroxidases (APOX) and glutathione-S-transferases (GST)] and malondialdehyde (MDA) at 9, 12, 15, 18, 21 and 24 °C in adult G. placida. H2O2 was highest at 24 °C followed by 9 °C and lowest at 18 and 21°C. CAT and SOD were highest at 9 °C followed by 24 °C, while POD was highest at 24 °C followed by 9 °C. CAT and POD were lowest at 18 and 21 °C, but SOD was the lowest at 21 °C. APOX were three-fold higher at 9 °C compared to 12 °C, which was the lowest at 18 and 21 °C, implying that APOX had strong detoxification function at 9 °C. GST was highest and lowest at 9 and 21 °C, respectively. MDA was highest at 9 °C and lowest at 18 and 21 °C, which did not differ significantly at 15 and 24 °C, suggesting that lower and higher temperature stress was accompanied by lipid peroxidation. This finding provides useful information for mass rearing of G. placida for predicting population dynamics and understanding the potential for G. placida as biocontrol agent under varying environmental conditions.

Two antifeedants, isopongaflavone and tephrosin have been isolated from Tephrosia elata. Tephrosin displayed high activity against Spodoptera exempta, while isopongaflavone was shown to be very active against Maruca testulalis and Eldana saccharina. Rotenone was found to be active as an antifeedant against S. exempta, E. saccharina and M. testulalis. Insects in the orders Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera and Diptera, all associated with T. elata seed pods, were identified.

The morphology of the sensilla sensitive to vertebrate host-associated stimuli is diverse reflecting the numerous independent origins of haematophagy within the insects. Using electron microscopic techniques, the sensilla of mosquitoes and blackflies have been the most thoroughly studied, although numerous works have been conducted on other blood-feeders. Notably lacking are fine structure studies on blood-feeding maggots and ectoparasitic, adult Muscomorpha.

In comparing blood-feeders with other insects it becomes apparent that: (1) carbon dioxide plays a significantly greater role in location of food by haematophagous insects than by phytophagous and saprophagous species; (2) only in blood-feeders do the adenosine phosphate nucleotides, a single group of compounds, appear to be the phagostimulants for almost all species; and (3) feeding deterrents are unknown in haematophagous insects.

When the sensory complements of the various groups of blood-feeders are compared, three points emerge. First, reduction in numbers of olfactory chemosensilla that mediate odour cues used in long-distance, host-orientation occurs in male nematocerans and in females of completely autogenous species of mosquitoes and black flies. Second, there is a striking correlation between the number of labial chemo- and mechanosensilla and the feeding behaviour of the insect. Third, there is a possible positive correlation between the number of chemosensitive antennal neurones and the distance travelled by the insect to the host.

Oomyzus sokolowskii (Kurdjumov) is a gregarious larval–pupal parasitoid of the diamondback moth Plutella xylostella (L.). The objective of this study was to investigate the interactions between host and parasitoid by examining the effects of biotic factors such as gregariousness, host origin and stages, and female parasitoid age on the parasitism rate, developmental time, the number of offspring and the offspring sex ratio of O. sokolowskii under laboratory conditions. The percentage of parasitism and the number of parasitoids increased with the number of O. sokolowskii females. Oomyzus sokolowskii preferred fourth larval instars over other larval stages. The parasitism rate and the progeny production of O. sokolowskii decreased with parasitoid age; however, the developmental time and the sex ratio of the offspring were not significantly different. Our results confirm previous findings on larval preferences of O. sokolowskii. The study also confirmed the importance of geographical origin of the host on the performance of O. sokolowskii.

Maruca vitrata Fabricius (legume pod borer, LPB), the most serious economic pest of legume crops in the tropics, is primarily controlled by chemical pesticide application with serious consequences for the ecosystem and human health. In this study, various concentrations of three commercial biopesticides, NeemBaan®, Bactospeine® (Bacillusthuringiensis (Bt) subsp. kurstaki) and Florbac® (Btaizawai), were tested either in the field or laboratory or in both conditions. In the laboratory experiments, different concentrations of NeemBaan® exhibited significant effects on the mortality of all the tested larval instars and a mortality rate of over 80% was recorded at a dose of 3000 ppm. Bactospeine® was found to be more effective against M. vitrata than Florbac®. Bactospeine® applied at a lower dose of 500 ppm caused 100% mortality in the first-instar and second-instar larvae; however, at the same dose, Florbac® caused mortality of only 26.67% (first instar) and 20% (second instar). In the field experiments, a higher dose of NeemBaan® (6000 ppm) significantly reduced pod damage to approximately 20% in both the first and second cropping seasons. In conclusion, neem- and Bt-based biopesticide products have insecticidal potential to be used in an integrated pest management strategy for controlling M. vitrata in Thailand.

A survey was conducted in Tororo, Bugiri and Kapchorwa districts in eastern and northeastern Uganda on farmers' perceptions of constraints in maize production. Farmers in Tororo and Bugiri consistently ranked stemborers and striga as the major production constraints in maize growing, while those in Kapchorwa ranked stemborers and lack of capital as the most important. Approximately 35 and 40% of the farmers in Tororo and Bugiri, respectively, identified stemborers as the ‘caterpillar’ that destroys their maize. In Kapchorwa, 50% of the farmers identified stemborers. Pesticide application was the most common control measure while the use of indigenous and cultural control measures was limited. Less than 50% of the farmers were aware of the existence of alternative plants/grasses on which stemborers feed. This study identified the need for creating farmers' awareness on the biology and ecology of stemborers. Empowering farmers by letting them learn and experiment will facilitate the development of innovative control measures.

The efficacy of different aqueous dilutions of crude seed extract of Millettia ferruginea (Hochst.) Baker (1, 3, 5 and 10%) was evaluated under field conditions in terms of the level of damage and yield loss of maize caused by the maize stemborer Busseola fusca (Fuller) in Hawassa, southern Ethiopia. The insecticide lambda-cyhalothrin 5EC, applied at a rate of 16 g active ingredient/hectare, was used as the reference product. The experiment was carried out in a randomized complete block design with four replications. The maize variety A511 was planted in individual plots of 60 m2. Data on stand count, leaf infestation, bored stem and dead heart were collected weekly. Plots sprayed with the 5% concentration of Millettia showed low levels of damage (9–11% leaf infestation, 0.4% dead heart, 14–17% bored stem and < 0.2% bored ear), compared with plots sprayed with lambda-cyhalothrin. The treatments with 1 and 3% concentrations of Millettia were inferior to those with lambda-cyhalothrin and 5 and 10% concentrations of Millettia. In contrast, the treatment with the 10% concentration of Millettia led to the death of plants, thereby lowering the yield. About 80% of the total length of individual maize stalks from the untreated plots was internally tunnelled by the feeding larvae, while the internal stem tunnelling was low ( < 7%) in plants treated with Millettia at concentrations of 3, 5 and 10%. Among the treatments with Millettia, higher yields (37–48 decitonnes/hectare) were obtained from maize plots treated with 5% concentration. The use of the aqueous crude seed extract of M. ferruginea at a concentration of 5% applied two to three times is recommended for the control of B. fusca in maize.

Female Eldana saccharina Walker was found to lay 327 ± 17.1 eggs within a period of 4 days and required three surfaces to lay eggs which were mainly deposited on the inner side of leaf sheaths fitting tightly on to the sugar-cane stalk. The mated females laid more eggs per female (327.0 ± 17.1) than virgin females (212.3 ± 5.5). The incubation period of the eggs of E. saccharina was found to be 5.64 ± 0.01 (5–7) days in the laboratory and 5.82 ± 0.03 (5–7) days in the field. The mean larval duration was 31 days and pre-pupal period lasted 2.05 ± 0.05 days. Larvae were found to exude a brownish liquid from their mouth in the direction of the invading predators. The newly hatched larvae spread out in 1–3 days of hatching. The mean growth ratio of the larval instars was 1.54 ± 0.05. Pupae frequently occurred very close to the exit hole (less than 5 cm) and the pupal period varied from 7 to 13 (9.76 ± 0.05) days. The life cycle of E. saccharina was completed in 49 (36–62) days. The pre-oviposition period was 2 days and the female reproductive life lasted 4 days. It takes about 53 days for a succeeding generation to be produced. Adults of E. saccharina survived from 6 to 13 days. Adults reared from field collected larvae snowed a sex ratio of 42:51 which was significantly different from 1:1 in the laboratory bred stock, at the 5% level of probability. A comparison of the life cycle of E. saccharina populations in Ghana and Uganda suggests the existence of two biotypes of the pest.

The studies show that the population of Maruca testulalis fluctuates greatly between the long and short rainy season and is significantly lower during the short and dry season, even when the cowpea crop is maintained under irrigation conditions. Studies on larval and pupal populations at Mbita Point, in Western Kenya and related farmers' plots showed lower populations under pure cowpea than under cowpea-maize intercrop, especially at 50% cowpea flowering stage (i.e. the second sampling stage). Although this difference was consistently manifested in the three seasons of experimentation there was no significant difference in larval population and extent of flower damage. Studies using three susceptible cowpea varieties (Ex-Lwanda, TVX 66-2H, and TVX 1193-059D) showed no significant difference in larval, pupal and adult populations when unsprayed. However, when sprayed with dimethoate (Rogor E 40) a systemic insecticide, significantly higher larval population was obtained in TVX 1193-059D, which shows the most vegetative growth of the three varieties. The borer damage on the flowers was not significantly different in all varieties under both the sprayed and unsprayed conditions. Studies using assessment of the different larval instars of M. testulalis in both sprayed and unsprayed conditions showed a continuous infestation of the crop throughout the season unless pod and flower production ceased. The fourth and fifth instar larvae were more abundant in pods than in flowers of the cowpea plant.

Four types of trap, yellow water, yellow sticky board, bottle with 20% protein hydrolysate, and funnel with 10% casein hydrolysate, were field-tested to control Liriomyza huidobrensis (Blanchard) in the coastal region of Peru. The yellow sticky boards were the most effective in trap capture with a mean of 1193.92 L. huidobrensis per week. The male:female capture ratio was 16:1.

Five parasitoid species, Halticoptera palellana, Chrysocharis phytomyzae, Chrysocharis sp., Diglyphus sp. and Opius sp., were also trapped. A significant negative correlation (r = −0.607 at P < 0.05) was observed for female leafminer capture vs temperature. Wind velocity was positively correlated with parasitoid capture (r = 0.509 at P < 0.05). The population of adult L. huidobrensis was significantly lower (P < 0.05) in plots with yellow sticky boards. Yields in plots with yellow sticky boards and those treated with insecticides were similar and significantly higher (36%) than check plots.

Acute toxicity tests were conducted to determine the biological effects of partially purified extracts of four different plants on the juveniles of Culex quinquefasciatus. The active ethyl acetate extract of Solarium suratense leaf produced a 24h LC50 of between 23.53 ppm for the second instars and 46.04 ppm for the third instars. This was followed by the defatted methanol fraction of Abrus precatorius seed coat extract with the LC50 values ranging from 59.82 ppm for the second instar to 77.34 ppm for the third instar. The petroleum ether fraction of Solatium trilobatum and the ethyl acetate fraction of Lencas aspera were less toxic to the larvae. The active fractions of the plant extracts disrupted moulting and metamorphosis, induced malformation, extended the larval duration and inhibited adult emergence. At concentrations of less than 37.64 ppm, they inhibited emergence of 50% of the larvae. The insecticidal activity of these extracts persisted for up to four days.

Five mutants for seed coat colour from the faba bean, Viciafaba L. variety BF 2/2 (Beladi) were tested qualitatively and quantitatively for tannin content. The susceptibility of the mutants to Bruchidius incarnatus (Boh.) and Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) was also evaluated. All seed coats contained tannins (0.75–3.75%). The darker the colour the lower the tannin content. Cotyledons with testas removed were devoid of tannins. The thickness of the seed coats ranged from 0.146–0.155 mm, however, differences among mutants were not significant. Faba seeds were more suitable for the multiplication of B. incarnatus than C. maculatus. The poor performance of the latter was manifested as low fecundity, high mortality and longer developmental period. It was concluded that selection for white coloured faba seeds should not be discouraged on the basis of its assumed susceptibility to bruchids.

The insecticide activity of synthetic pyrethroids to Triatoma infestans was tested by topical application. Deltamethrin, fenpropathrin, bioresmethrin, permethrin, cypermethrin, d-phenothrin and cyphenothrin showed the highest activity.

The susceptibility to poisoning of adult insects by these pyrethroids (except bioresmethrin) was increased by cotreatment with profenofos or with piperonyl butoxide (PBO). Assayed pyrethroids synergized by PBO showed similar general structure.

The vinyl cyano pyrethroids showed a knockdown effect with a delayed recovery. During 15 days after intoxication with deltamethrin, insect recovery was observed. Recovery blockage by PBO was observed in cyphenothrin and deltamethrin poisoning at low doses.

The influence of temperature on the age-specific fecundity of an aphidophagous ladybeetle, Micraspis discolor (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) feeding on the cowpea aphid, Aphis craccivora Koch (Homoptera: Aphididae) at four different temperatures, viz. 20, 25, 27 and 30 °C, was investigated. The age-specific fecundity function was triangular and oviposition rate (no. of eggs/ day) increased with increase in reproductive age of the ladybeetle, attaining a peak then gradually decreasing before finally ceasing. Young adults were more efficient at converting aphid biomass into eggs than older ones. The oviposition peak tended to shift towards younger females and the oviposition rate increased with increase in temperature from 20 to 27 °C. The maximum fecundity and percent egg viability was 750 eggs and 95 % at 27 °C and minimum 385 eggs and 65 % at 20 °C, respectively.