To assess the time-dependent exposure of California healthcare facilities to patients harboring methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE), extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)–producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) upon discharge from 1 hospital.

Retrospective multiple-cohort study of adults discharged from 1 hospital in 2005–2009, counting hospitals, nursing homes, cities, and counties in which carriers were readmitted, and comparing the number and length of stay of readmissions and the number of distinct readmission facilities among carriers versus noncarriers.

We evaluated 45,772 inpatients including those with MRSA (N=1,198), VRE (N=547), ESBL (N=121), and CDI (N=300). Within 1 year of discharge, MRSA, VRE, and ESBL carriers exposed 137, 117, and 45 hospitals and 103, 83, and 37 nursing homes, generating 58,804, 33,486, and 15,508 total exposure-days, respectively. Within 90 days of discharge, CDI patients exposed 36 hospitals and 35 nursing homes, generating 7,318 total exposure-days. Compared with noncarriers, carriers had more readmissions to hospitals (MRSA:1.8 vs 0.9/patient; VRE: 2.6 vs 0.9; ESBL: 2.3 vs 0.9; CDI: 0.8 vs 0.4; all P<.001) and nursing homes (MRSA: 0.4 vs 0.1/patient; VRE: 0.7 vs 0.1; ESBL: 0.7 vs 0.1; CDI: 0.3 vs 0.1; all P<.001) and longer hospital readmissions (MRSA: 8.9 vs 7.3 days; VRE: 8.9 vs 7.4; ESBL: 9.6 vs 7.5; CDI: 12.3 vs 8.2; all P<.01).

Patients harboring antibiotic-resistant pathogens rapidly expose numerous facilities during readmissions; regional containment strategies are needed.

Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 2015;36(11):1275–1282

Prevalence of blaKPC-encoding Enterobacteriaceae (KPC) in Chicago long-term acute care hospitals (LTACHs) rose rapidly after the first recognition in 2007. We studied the epidemiology and transmission capacity of KPC in LTACHs and the effect of patient cohorting.

Data were available from 4 Chicago LTACHs from June 2012 to June 2013 during a period of bundled interventions. These consisted of screening for KPC rectal carriage, daily chlorhexidine bathing, medical staff education, and 3 cohort strategies: a pure cohort (all KPC-positive patients on 1 floor), single rooms for KPC-positive patients, and a mixed cohort (all KPC-positive patients on 1 floor, supplemented with KPC-negative patients). A data-augmented Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) method was used to model the transmission process.

Average prevalence of KPC colonization was 29.3%. On admission, 18% of patients were colonized; the sensitivity of the screening process was 81%. The per admission reproduction number was 0.40. The number of acquisitions per 1,000 patient days was lowest in LTACHs with a pure cohort ward or single rooms for colonized patients compared with mixed-cohort wards, but 95% credible intervals overlapped.

Prevalence of KPC in LTACHs is high, primarily due to high admission prevalence and the resultant impact of high colonization pressure on cross transmission. In this setting, with an intervention in place, patient-to-patient transmission is insufficient to maintain endemicity. Inclusion of a pure cohort or single rooms for KPC-positive patients in an intervention bundle seemed to limit transmission compared to use of a mixed cohort.

Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2015;36(10):1148–1154

Risk factors for rectal carriage of ESBL-E and transmission were investigated in an outbreak of extended-spectrum β-lactamase–producing Enterobacteriaceae (ESBL-E).

Rectal carriage of ESBL-E was determined in a cross-sectional survey by culture of perianal swabs or fecal samples. Both phenotypical and genotypical methods were used to detect the production of ESBL. Nosocomial transmission was defined as the presence of genotypically related strains in ≥2 residents within the NH. Patient characteristics and variables in infection control practices were registered to investigate risk factors for transmission.

A nursing home (NH) in the southern Netherlands.

Of 189 residents, 160 residents (84.7%) were screened for ESBL-E carriage. Of these 160 residents, 33 (20.6%) were ESBL-E positive. ESBL carriage rates varied substantially between wards (range, 0–47%). Four different ESBL-E clusters were observed. A blaCTX-M1-15 positive E. coli ST131 constituted the largest cluster (n=21) and was found in multiple wards (n=7).

Our investigation revealed extensive clonal dissemination of blaCTX-M1-15-positive E. coli ST131 in a nursing home. Unexplained differences in ESBL prevalence were detected among the wards.

As NHs constitute potential sources of multidrug-resistant bacteria, it is important to gain a better understanding of the risks factors and routes of transmission of ESBL-E.

Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2014;00(0): 1–7

Evaluate the effect of outpatient antimicrobial stewardship programs on prescribing, patient, microbial outcomes, and costs.

Systematic review

Search of MEDLINE (2000 through November 2013), Cochrane Library, and reference lists of relevant studies. We included English language studies with patient populations relevant to the United States (eg, infectious conditions, prescription services) evaluating stewardship programs in outpatient settings and reporting outcomes of interest. Data regarding study characteristics and outcomes were extracted and organized by intervention type.

We identified 50 studies eligible for inclusion, with most (29 of 50; 58%) reporting on respiratory tract infections, followed by multiple/unspecified infections (17 of 50; 34%). We found medium-strength evidence that stewardship programs incorporating communication skills training and laboratory testing are associated with reductions in antimicrobial use, and low-strength evidence that other stewardship interventions are associated with improved prescribing. Patient-centered outcomes, which were infrequently reported, were not adversely affected. Medication costs were generally lower with stewardship interventions, but overall program costs were rarely reported. No studies reported microbial outcomes, and data regarding outpatient settings other than primary care clinics are limited.

Low- to moderate-strength evidence suggests that antimicrobial stewardship programs in outpatient settings improve antimicrobial prescribing without adversely effecting patient outcomes. Effectiveness depends on program type. Most studies were not designed to measure patient or resistance outcomes. Data regarding sustainability and scalability of interventions are limited.

Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2014;00(0):1–11

To develop an algorithm using administrative codes, laboratory data, and medication data to identify recurrent Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) and to examine the sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values, and performance of this algorithm.

We identified all patients with 2 or more International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Edition, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM) codes for CDI (008.45) from January 1 through December 31, 2013. Information on number of diagnosis codes, stool toxin assays (enzyme immunoassay or polymerase chain reaction), and unique prescriptions for metronidazole and vancomycin was identified. Logistic regression was used to identify independent predictors of recurrent CDI and a predictive model was developed.

A total of 591 patients with at least 2 ICD-9 codes for CDI were included (median age, 66 years). The derivation cohort consisted of 157 patients among whom 43 (27%) had recurrent CDI. Presence of 3 or more ICD-9 codes for CDI (odds ratio, 2.49), 2 or more stool tests (odds ratio, 2.88), and 2 or more prescriptions for vancomycin (odds ratio, 5.87) were independently associated with confirmed recurrent CDI. A classifier incorporating 2 or more prescriptions for vancomycin and either 2 or more stool tests or 3 or more ICD-9-CM codes had a positive predictive value of 41% and negative predictive value of 90%. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve for this combined classifier was modest (0.69).

Identification of recurrent episodes of CDI in administrative data poses challenges. Accurate assessment of burden requires individual case review to confirm diagnosis.

Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2015;36(8):893–898

To increase reliability of the algorithm used in our fully automated electronic surveillance system by adding rules to better identify bloodstream infections secondary to other hospital-acquired infections.

Intensive care unit (ICU) patients with positive blood cultures were reviewed. Central line–associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI) determinations were based on 2 sources: routine surveillance by infection preventionists, and fully automated surveillance. Discrepancies between the 2 sources were evaluated to determine root causes. Secondary infection sites were identified in most discrepant cases. New rules to identify secondary sites were added to the algorithm and applied to this ICU population and a non-ICU population. Sensitivity, specificity, predictive values, and kappa were calculated for the new models.

Of 643 positive ICU blood cultures reviewed, 68 (10.6%) were identified as central line–associated bloodstream infections by fully automated electronic surveillance, whereas 38 (5.9%) were confirmed by routine surveillance. New rules were tested to identify organisms as central line–associated bloodstream infections if they did not meet one, or a combination of, the following: (I) matching organisms (by genus and species) cultured from any other site; (II) any organisms cultured from sterile site; (III) any organisms cultured from skin/wound; (IV) any organisms cultured from respiratory tract. The best-fit model included new rules I and II when applied to positive blood cultures in an ICU population. However, they didn’t improve performance of the algorithm when applied to positive blood cultures in a non-ICU population.

Electronic surveillance system algorithms may need adjustment for specific populations.

Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 2015;36(12):1396–1400

To determine whether a difference in antibody to hepatitis B surface antigen (anti-HBs) response to a hepatitis B vaccine challenge dose existed among persons with a baseline anti-HBs level of 0 mIU/mL (group 1) and those with “non-zero” levels of 0.1–4.9 (group 2) and 5.0–9.9 (group 3) mIU/mL, according to the VITROS ECi anti-HBs assay.

Subanalysis of randomized clinical trial. Response was defined as a postchallenge anti-HBs level of at least 10 mIU/mL and 4-fold rise in anti-HBs level 2 weeks after a single challenge dose of 10 vs 20 µg Engerix-B. Baseline was defined as the anti-HBs level immediately before administration of the challenge dose.

Pediatric integrated healthcare system near Houston, Texas.

Three hundred nineteen US-born 16–19-year-olds who completed the hepatitis B vaccine series during the first year of life.

One hundred seventy-eight persons had zero (group 1) and 141 (114 group 2 and 27 group 3) had non-zero anti-HBs levels at baseline. Response to the challenge dose was significantly higher among those with non-zero vs zero anti-HBs levels, irrespective of challenge dosage; only 1 person with a non-zero anti-HBs level failed to respond to the challenge dose (group 3, 27/27 [100%] vs group 2, 113/114 [99%] vs group 1, 145/178 [82%]; P<.0001).

Among participants with residual anti-HBs levels less than 10 mIU/mL 16–19 years after primary hepatitis B vaccination during infancy, non-zero anti-HBs levels, with rare exception, indicated persistence of immune memory to HBsAg.

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT01341275

Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2015;00(0):1–5

To create a national policy model to evaluate the projected cost-effectiveness of multiple hospital-based strategies to prevent methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) transmission and infection.

Cost-effectiveness analysis using a Markov microsimulation model that simulates the natural history of MRSA acquisition and infection.

Hypothetical cohort of 10,000 adult patients admitted to a US intensive care unit.

We compared 7 strategies to standard precautions using a hospital perspective: (1) active surveillance cultures; (2) active surveillance cultures plus selective decolonization; (3) universal contact precautions (UCP); (4) universal chlorhexidine gluconate baths; (5) universal decolonization; (6) UCP + chlorhexidine gluconate baths; and (7) UCP+decolonization. For each strategy, both efficacy and compliance were considered. Outcomes of interest were: (1) MRSA colonization averted; (2) MRSA infection averted; (3) incremental cost per colonization averted; (4) incremental cost per infection averted.

A total of 1989 cases of colonization and 544 MRSA invasive infections occurred under standard precautions per 10,000 patients. Universal decolonization was the least expensive strategy and was more effective compared with all strategies except UCP+decolonization and UCP+chlorhexidine gluconate. UCP+decolonization was more effective than universal decolonization but would cost $2469 per colonization averted and $9007 per infection averted. If MRSA colonization prevalence decreases from 12% to 5%, active surveillance cultures plus selective decolonization becomes the least expensive strategy.

Universal decolonization is cost-saving, preventing 44% of cases of MRSA colonization and 45% of cases of MRSA infection. Our model provides useful guidance for decision makers choosing between multiple available hospital-based strategies to prevent MRSA transmission.

Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2015;36(1): 17–27

Healthcare-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections are a major cause of morbidity, mortality, and cost among hospitalized patients. Little is known about their impact on post-discharge resource utilization. The purpose of this study was to estimate post-discharge healthcare costs and utilization attributable to positive MRSA cultures during a hospitalization.

Our study cohort consisted of patients with an inpatient admission lasting longer than 48 hours within the US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) system between October 1, 2007, and November 30, 2010. Of these patients, we identified those with a positive MRSA culture from microbiology reports in the VA electronic medical record. We used propensity score matching and multivariable regression models to assess the impact of positive culture on post-discharge outpatient, inpatient, and pharmacy costs and utilization in the 365 days following discharge.

Our full cohort included 369,743 inpatients, of whom, 3,599 (1.0%) had positive MRSA cultures. Our final analysis sample included 3,592 matched patients with and without positive cultures. We found that, in the 12 months following hospital discharge, having a positive culture resulted in increases in post-discharge pharmacy costs ($776, P<.0001) and inpatient costs ($12,167, P<.0001). Likewise, having a positive culture increased the risk of a readmission (odds ratio [OR]=1.396, P<.0001), the number of prescriptions (incidence rate ratio [IRR], 1.138; P<.0001) and the number of inpatient days (IRR, 1.204; P<.0001,) but decreased the number of subsequent outpatient encounters (IRR, 0.941; P<.008).

The results of this study indicate that MRSA infections are associated with higher levels of post-discharge healthcare cost and utilization. These findings indicate that financial benefits resulting from infection prevention efforts may extend beyond the initial hospital stay.

Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2015;00(0): 1–9

To examine inappropriate antibiotic prescribing for acute respiratory tract infections (RTIs) in ambulatory care to help target antimicrobial stewardship interventions.

Retrospective analysis of RTI visits within general internal medicine (GIM) and family medicine (FM) ambulatory practices at an inner-city academic medical center from 2008 to 2010.

Patient, physician, and practice characteristics were analyzed using multivariable logistic regression to determine factors predictive of inappropriate prescribing; physicians in the highest and lowest antibiotic-prescribing quartiles were compared using χ2 analysis.

Visits with FM providers, female gender, and self-reported race/ethnicity as white or Hispanic were significantly associated with inappropriate antibiotic prescribing. Physicians in the lowest quartile prescribed antibiotics for 5%–28% (mean, 21%) of RTI visits; physicians in the highest quartile prescribed antibiotics for 54%–85% (mean, 65%) of RTI visits. High prescribers had fewer African-American patients and more patients who were younger and privately insured. High prescribers had more patients with chronic lung disease. A GIM practice pod with a low prescriber was 3.0 times more likely to have a second low prescriber than other practice pods, whereas pods with a high prescriber were 1.3 times more likely to have a second high prescriber.

Medical specialty was the only physician factor predictive of inappropriate prescribing when patient gender, race, and comorbidities were taken into account. Possible disparities in care need further study. Stewardship education in medical school, enlisting low prescribers as physician leaders, and targeting interventions to the highest prescribers might be more effective approaches to antimicrobial stewardship.

Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2014;00(0): 1–7

To characterize the epidemiology of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Acinetobacter baumannii colonization in high-risk nursing home (NH) residents.

Nested case-control study within a multicenter prospective intervention trial.

Four NHs in Southeast Michigan.

Case patients and control subjects were NH residents with an indwelling device (urinary catheter and/or feeding tube) selected from the control arm of the Targeted Infection Prevention study. Cases were residents colonized with MDR (resistant to ≥3 classes of antibiotics) A. baumannii; controls were never colonized with MDR A. baumannii.

For active surveillance cultures, specimens from the nares, oropharynx, groin, perianal area, wounds, and device insertion site(s) were collected upon study enrollment, day 14, and monthly thereafter. A. baumannii strains and their susceptibilities were identified using standard microbiologic methods.

Of 168 NH residents, 25 (15%) were colonized with MDR A. baumannii. Compared with the 143 controls, cases were more functionally disabled (Physical Self-Maintenance Score >24; odds ratio, 5.1 [95% CI, 1.8–14.9]; P<.004), colonized with Proteus mirabilis (5.8 [1.9–17.9]; P<.003), and diabetic (3.4 [1.2–9.9]; P<.03). Most cases (22 [88%]) were colonized with multiple antibiotic-resistant organisms and 16 (64%) exhibited co-colonization with at least one other resistant gram-negative bacteria.

Functional disability, P. mirabilis colonization, and diabetes mellitus are important risk factors for colonization with MDR A. baumannii in high-risk NH residents. A. baumannii exhibits widespread antibiotic resistance and a preference to colonize with other antibiotic-resistant organisms, meriting enhanced attention and improved infection control practices in these residents.

Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2015;36(10):1155–1162

Standard estimates of the impact of Clostridium difficile infections (CDI) on inpatient lengths of stay (LOS) may overstate inpatient care costs attributable to CDI. In this study, we used multistate modeling (MSM) of CDI timing to reduce bias in estimates of excess LOS.

A retrospective cohort study of all hospitalizations at any of 120 acute care facilities within the US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) between 2005 and 2012 was conducted. We estimated the excess LOS attributable to CDI using an MSM to address time-dependent bias. Bootstrapping was used to generate 95% confidence intervals (CI). These estimates were compared to unadjusted differences in mean LOS for hospitalizations with and without CDI.

During the study period, there were 3.96 million hospitalizations and 43,540 CDIs. A comparison of unadjusted means suggested an excess LOS of 14.0 days (19.4 vs 5.4 days). In contrast, the MSM estimated an attributable LOS of only 2.27 days (95% CI, 2.14–2.40). The excess LOS for mild-to-moderate CDI was 0.75 days (95% CI, 0.59–0.89), and for severe CDI, it was 4.11 days (95% CI, 3.90–4.32). Substantial variation across the Veteran Integrated Services Networks (VISN) was observed.

CDI significantly contributes to LOS, but the magnitude of its estimated impact is smaller when methods are used that account for the time-varying nature of infection. The greatest impact on LOS occurred among patients with severe CDI. Significant geographic variability was observed. MSM is a useful tool for obtaining more accurate estimates of the inpatient care costs of CDI.

Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 2015;36(9):1024–1030

The risk of carrying methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is higher among nursing home (NH) residents than in the general population. However, control strategies are not clearly defined in this setting. In this study, we compared the impact of standard precautions either alone (control) or combined with screening of residents and decolonization of carriers (intervention) to control MRSA in NHs.

Cluster randomized controlled trial

NHs of the state of Vaud, Switzerland

Of 157 total NHs in Vaud, 104 (67%) participated in the study.

Standard precautions were enforced in all participating NHs, and residents underwent MRSA screening at baseline and 12 months thereafter. All carriers identified in intervention NHs, either at study entry or among newly admitted residents, underwent topical decolonization combined with environmental disinfection, except in cases of MRSA infection, MRSA bacteriuria, or deep skin ulcers.

NHs were randomly allocated to a control group (51 NHs, 2,412 residents) or an intervention group (53 NHs, 2,338 residents). Characteristics of NHs and residents were similar in both groups. The mean screening rates were 86% (range, 27%–100%) in control NHs and 87% (20%–100%) in intervention NHs. Prevalence of MRSA carriage averaged 8.9% in both control NHs (range, 0%–43%) and intervention NHs (range, 0%–38%) at baseline, and this rate significantly declined to 6.6% in control NHs and to 5.8% in intervention NHs after 12 months. However, the decline did not differ between groups (P=.66).

Universal screening followed by decolonization of carriers did not significantly reduce the prevalence of the MRSA carriage rate at 1 year compared with standard precautions.

Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2015;00(0): 1–8

In this study, we examined the impact of routine use of a passive disinfection cap for catheter hub decontamination in hematology–oncology patients.

A tertiary care cancer center in New York City

In this multiphase prospective study, we used 2 preintervention phases (P1 and P2) to establish surveillance and baseline rates followed by sequential introduction of disinfection caps on high-risk units (HRUs: hematologic malignancy wards, hematopoietic stem cell transplant units and intensive care units) (P3) and general oncology units (P4). Unit-specific and hospital-wide hospital-acquired central-line–associated bloodstream infection (HA-CLABSI) rates and blood culture contamination (BCC) with coagulase negative staphylococci (CONS) were measured.

Implementation of a passive disinfection cap resulted in a 34% decrease in hospital-wide HA-CLABSI rates (combined P1 and P2 baseline rate of 2.66–1.75 per 1,000 catheter days at the end of the study period). This reduction occurred only among high-risk patients and not among general oncology patients. In addition, the use of the passive disinfection cap resulted in decreases of 63% (HRUs) and 51% (general oncology units) in blood culture contamination, with an estimated reduction of 242 BCCs with CONS. The reductions in HA-CLABSI and BCC correspond to an estimated annual savings of $3.2 million in direct medical costs.

Routine use of disinfection caps is associated with decreased HA-CLABSI rates among high-risk hematology oncology patients and a reduction in blood culture contamination among all oncology patients.

Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 2015;36(12):1401–1408

Procalcitonin has emerged as a promising biomarker of bacterial infection. Published literature demonstrates that use of procalcitonin testing and an associated treatment pathway reduces duration of antibiotic therapy without impacting mortality. The objective of this study was to determine the financial impact of utilizing a procalcitonin-guided treatment algorithm in hospitalized patients with sepsis.

Cost-minimization and cost-utility analysis.

Hypothetical cohort of adult ICU patients with suspected bacterial infection and sepsis.

Utilizing published clinical and economic data, a decision analytic model was developed from the U.S. hospital perspective. Effectiveness and utility measures were defined using cost-per-clinical episode and cost per quality-adjusted life years (QALYs). Upper and lower sensitivity ranges were determined for all inputs. Univariate and probabilistic sensitivity analyses assessed the robustness of our model and variables. Incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) were calculated and compared to predetermined willingness-to-pay thresholds.

Base-case results predicted the use of a procalcitonin-guided treatment algorithm dominated standard care with improved quality (0.0002 QALYs) and decreased overall treatment costs ($65). The model was sensitive to a number of key variables that had the potential to impact results, including algorithm adherence (<42.3%), number and cost of procalcitonin tests ordered (≥9 and >$46), days of antimicrobial reduction (<1.6 d), incidence of nephrotoxicity and rate of nephrotoxicity reduction.

The combination of procalcitonin testing with an evidence-based treatment algorithm may improve patients’ quality of life while decreasing costs in ICU patients with suspected bacterial infection and sepsis; however, results were highly dependent on a number of variables and assumptions.

Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2014;00(0): 1–8

The pandemic of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) was primarily due to clonal spread of blaKPC producing Klebsiella pneumoniae. Thus, thoroughly studied CRE cohorts have consisted mostly of K. pneumoniae.

To conduct an extensive epidemiologic analysis of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacter spp. (CREn) from 2 endemic and geographically distinct centers.

CREn were investigated at an Israeli center (Assaf Harofeh Medical Center, January 2007 to July 2012) and at a US center (Detroit Medical Center, September 2008 to September 2009). blaKPC genes were queried by polymerase chain reaction. Repetitive extragenic palindromic polymerase chain reaction and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis were used to determine genetic relatedness.

In this analysis, 68 unique patients with CREn were enrolled. Sixteen isolates (24%) were from wounds, and 33 (48%) represented colonization only. All isolates exhibited a positive Modified Hodge Test, but only 93% (27 of 29) contained blaKPC. Forty-three isolates (63%) were from elderly adults, and 5 (7.4%) were from neonates. Twenty-seven patients died in hospital (40.3% of infected patients). Enterobacter strains consisted of 4 separate clones from Assaf Harofeh Medical Center and of 4 distinct clones from Detroit Medical Center.

In this study conducted at 2 distinct CRE endemic regions, there were unique epidemiologic features to CREn: (i) polyclonality, (ii) neonates accounting for more than 7% of cohort, and (iii) high rate of colonization (almost one-half of all cases represented colonization). Since false-positive Modified Hodge Tests in Enterobacter spp. are common, close monitoring of carbapenem resistance mechanisms (particularly carbapenemase production) among Enterobacter spp. is important.

Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 2015;36(11):1283–1291

To identify risk factors for recurrent methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) colonization.

Prospective cohort study conducted from January 1, 2010, through December 31, 2012.

Five adult and pediatric academic medical centers.

Subjects (ie, index cases) who presented with acute community-onset MRSA skin and soft-tissue infection.

Index cases and all household members performed self-sampling for MRSA colonization every 2 weeks for 6 months. Clearance of colonization was defined as 2 consecutive sampling periods with negative surveillance cultures. Recurrent colonization was defined as any positive MRSA surveillance culture after clearance. Index cases with recurrent MRSA colonization were compared with those without recurrence on the basis of antibiotic exposure, household demographic characteristics, and presence of MRSA colonization in household members.

The study cohort comprised 195 index cases; recurrent MRSA colonization occurred in 85 (43.6%). Median time to recurrence was 53 days (interquartile range, 36–84 days). Treatment with clindamycin was associated with lower risk of recurrence (odds ratio, 0.52; 95% CI, 0.29–0.93). Higher percentage of household members younger than 18 was associated with increased risk of recurrence (odds ratio, 1.01; 95% CI, 1.00–1.02). The association between MRSA colonization in household members and recurrent colonization in index cases did not reach statistical significance in primary analyses.

A large proportion of patients initially presenting with MRSA skin and soft-tissue infection will have recurrent colonization after clearance. The reduced rate of recurrent colonization associated with clindamycin may indicate a unique role for this antibiotic in the treatment of such infection.

Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 2015;36(7):786–793

Nasal swab culture is the standard method for identifying methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) carriers. However, this method is known to miss a substantial portion of those carrying MRSA elsewhere. We hypothesized that the additional use of a sponge to collect skin culture samples would significantly improve the sensitivity of MRSA detection.

Hospitalized patients with recent MRSA infection were enrolled and underwent MRSA screening of the forehead, nostrils, pharynx, axilla, and groin with separate swabs and the forehead, axilla, and groin with separate sponges. Staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) typing was conducted by polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

A total of 105 MRSA patients were included in the study.

At least 1 specimen from 56.2% of the patients grew MRSA. Among patients with at least 1 positive specimen, the detection sensitivities were 79.7% for the swabs and 64.4% for the sponges. Notably, 86.4% were detected by a combination of sponges and nasal swab, and 72.9% were detected by a combination of pharyngeal and nasal swabs, whereas only 50.9% were detected by nasal swab alone (P<0.0001 and P=0.0003, respectively). Most isolates had SCCmec type II (59.9%) and IV (35.7%). No correlation was observed between the SCCmec types and collection sites.

Screening using a sponge significantly improves MRSA detection when used in addition to screening with the standard nasal swab.

Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2014;36(1): 28–33

Evidence is lacking on the preventive effect of oral care on healthcare-associated pneumonia in hospitalized patients and nursing home residents who are not mechanically ventilated. The primary aim of this review was to assess the effectiveness of oral care on the incidence of pneumonia in nonventilated patients.

We searched 8 databases (MEDLINE, Embase, CENTRAL, CINAHL, Web of Science, LILACS, ICHUSHI, and CiNii), in addition to trial registries and a manual search. Eligible studies were published and unpublished randomized controlled trials examining the effect of any method of oral care on reported incidence of pneumonia and/or fatal pneumonia. Relative risks (RR) and 95% confidence intervals were calculated. Risk of bias was assessed for eligible studies.

We identified 5 studies consisting of 1,009 subjects that met the inclusion criteria. Of these, 2 trials assessed the effect of chlorhexidine in hospitalized patients; 3 studies examined mechanical oral cleaning in nursing home residents. A meta-analysis could only be done on 4 trials; this analysis showed a significant risk reduction in pneumonia through oral care interventions (RRfixed, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.40–0.91; P=.02). The effects of mechanical oral care alone were significant when pooled across studies. (RRfixed, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.40–0.92; P=.02). Risk reduction for fatal pneumonia from mechanical oral cleaning was also significant (RRfixed, 0.41; 95% CI, 0.23–0.71; P=.002). Most studies had a high risk of bias.

This analysis suggests a preventive effect of oral care on pneumonia in nonventilated individuals. This effect, however, should be interpreted with caution due to risk of bias in the included trials.

Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2015;36(8): 899–906