Understanding the effects of glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) of the British Isles is essential for the assessment of past and future sea-level trends. GIA has been extensively examined in the literature, employing different research methods and observational data types. Geological evidence from palaeo-shorelines and undisturbed sedimentary deposits has been used to reconstruct long-term relative sea-level change since the Last Glacial Maximum. This information derived from sea-level index points has been employed to inform empirical isobase models of the uplift in Scotland using trend surface and Gaussian trend surface analysis, as well as to calibrate more theory-driven GIA models that rely on Earth mantle rheology and ice sheet history. Furthermore, current short-term rates of GIA-induced crustal motion during the past few decades have been measured using different geodetic techniques, mainly continuous GPS (CGPS) and absolute gravimetry (AG). AG-measurements are generally employed to increase the accuracy of the CGPS estimates. Synthetic aperture radar interferometry (InSAR) looks promising as a relatively new technique to measure crustal uplift in the northern parts of Great Britain, where the GIA-induced vertical land deformation has its highest rate. This literature review provides an in-depth comparison and discussion of the development of these different research approaches.

Earth has been habitable through most of its history, but the anthropogenically mediated greenhouse effect, if sufficiently strong, can threaten Earth's long-standing equability. This paper's main aim is to determine the strength of the anthropogenic greenhouse effect (the climate sensitivity) from observational data and basic physics alone, without recourse to the parameterisations of earth-system models and their inevitable uncertainties. A key finding is that the sensitivity can be constrained by harmonising historical records of land and ocean temperatures with observations of potential climate-change drivers in a non-steady state, energy-balance equation via a least-squares optimisation. The global temperature increase, for a CO2 doubling, is found to lie (95 % confidence limits) between 3.0oC and 6.3oC, with a best estimate of +4oC. Under a business-as-usual scenario, which assumes that there will be no significant change in people's attitudes and priorities, Earth's surface temperature is forecast to rise by 7.9oC over the land, and by 3.6oC over the oceans, by the year 2100. Global temperature rise has slowed in the last decade, leading some to question climate predictions of substantial 21st-Century warming. A formal runs test, however, shows that the recent slowdown is part of the normal behaviour of the climate system.

Material excavated from a trench dug to expose the Rhynie Cherts Unit of the Dryden Flags Formation included blocks of Rhynie chert up to 50 cm thick and comprising the full thickness of plant-bearing chert beds. These blocks, and others collected as float, display a variety of macro-textures typical of silicification at the terrestrial surface and in shallow water. On sandy terrestrial surfaces, autochthonous and allochthonous plant debris and plant rhizomes are well preserved, but aerial axes generally decayed prior to silicification. In shallow water, clonal plants, particularly Rhynia, are preserved with aerial axes in growth position, supported by microbial mats and meshworks. Preservation of such delicate fabrics required the creation of a load-bearing framework early in the silicification process, to prevent crushing during early burial.

On the microscale, plant taphonomy reveals characteristic features due to plant decay prior to silicification in both wet and dry conditions, and also during the silicification process. Silicification of plants was frequently very rapid, preserving delicate transient features such as spore germination and ejection of sperm cells from antheridia. In situations where plant tissue continued to decay during silicification, the process was slower.

Samples of mid-Ordovician Durness Group limestone from Skye yield micrometeorites in the magnetic fraction after dissolution in acid. The micrometeorites are concentrated in the upper part of the sequence, in the Arenig Balnakeil and Croisaphuill formations. This finding is consistent with their stratigraphic distribution determined previously in the Durness district. A single sample of contemporaneous limestones from the Highland Border Fault Zone also yielded a micrometeorite. These observations suggest an elevated flux of meteoritic matter, shortly before the greatest concentration of meteorites in the geological record in the mid-Ordovician of Sweden.

The Galway Granite Complex is unique among the British and Irish Caledonian granitoid terranes, as it records punctuated phases of magmatism from ∼425–380 Ma throughout the latest phase of the Caledonian Orogeny. Remapping of the Omey Pluton, the oldest member of this suite, has constrained the spatial distribution and contact relationships of the pluton's three main facies relative to the nature of the host rock structure. The external contacts of the pluton are mostly concordant to the limbs and hinge of the Connemara Antiform. New AMS data show that a subtle concentric outward dipping foliation is present, and this is interpreted to reflect pluton inflation during continued magma ingress. Combined field, petrographic and AMS data show that two sets of shear zones (NNW–SSE and ENE–WSW) cross-cut the concentric foliation, and that these structures were active during the construction of the pluton. We show that regional sinistral transpression at ∼420 Ma would have caused dilation along the intersection of these two fault sets, and suggest that this facilitated centralised magma ascent. Lateral emplacement was controlled by the symmetry of the Connemara Antiform to ultimately produce a discordant phacolith. We propose that regional sinistral transpression at ∼420 Ma influenced the siting of smaller intrusions over NNW–SSE faults, and that the later onset of regional transtension caused larger volumes of magma to intrude along the E–W Skird Rocks Fault at ∼400 Ma.

This paper presents a review of recent developments in the study of vision in fossil arthropods, beginning with a discussion of the origin of visual systems. A report of the eyes of Cambrian arthropods from different Lagerstätten, especially the compound and median arthropod eyes from the Chengjiang fauna of China, is given. Reference is made also to compound eyes from the lower Cambrian Emu Bay Shale fauna of Australia and the Sirius Passet fauna of Greenland; also to the three-dimensionally preserved ‘Orsten’ fauna of Sweden. An understanding of how these eyes functioned is possible by reference to living arthropods and by using physical tools developed by physiologists. The eyes of trilobites (lower Cambrian to Upper Permian) are often very well preserved, and the structure and physiology of their calcite lenses, and the eye as a whole, are summarised here, based upon recent literature. Two main kinds of trilobite eyes have been long known. Firstly, there is the holochroal type, in which the lenses are usually numerous, small and closely packed together; this represents the ancestral kind, first found in lowermost Cambrian trilobites. The second type is the schizochroal eye, in which the lenses are relatively much larger and each is separated from its neighbours. Such eyes are confined to the single suborder Phacopina (Lower Ordovician to Upper Devonian). This visual system has no real equivalents in the animal kingdom. In this present paper, the origin of schizochroal eyes, by paedomorphosis from holochroal precursors, is reviewed, together with subsequent evolutionary transitions in the Early Ordovician. A summary of new work on the structure and mineralogy of phacopid lenses is presented, as is a discussion of the recent discovery of sublensar sensory structures in Devonian phacopids, which has opened up new dimensions in the study of trilobite vision.

The early stages in ontogenetic development are described in the co-occurring Sphaerophthalmus alatus (Boeck, 1838) and Ctenopyge (Mesoctenopyge) tumida Westergård, 1922, using fragmentary but otherwise well-preserved material from Bornholm, Denmark. The former species is a senior synonym of Ctenopyge (Eoctenopyge) angusta Westergård, 1922, as has been recently proposed, but the early stages of S. alatus from Bornholm are appreciably more spiny than those found of the same species in other places in Scandinavia, and spinosity is retained until later in development. Increasing convexity with development and other morphological changes are noted. Pygidia were previously unknown in C. (M.) tumida. Here, they are represented by early pygidia. These are shield-shaped, with a very spiny margin and a strong axial spine. The distinction between Sphaerophthalmus and Ctenopyge is discussed.

The bivalve ligament provides the thrust for shell opening, acting as the resistance in a lever system against which adductor muscle effort is applied. Usually, its outer lamellar layer is subjected to tensile stress, while the inner fibrous layer is compressed, with the pivotal axis located between them. However, opisthogyrate rostrate bivalves display a concave dorsal margin, and both the umbo and the postero-dorsal angle of the shell project dorsally to the ligament, which then fails to act as pivotal axis. Three opisthogyrate rostrate genera of unrelated lineages show somewhat different solutions to this morpho-functional challenge. In Cuspidaria (Anomalodesmata), the ligament is internal, subjected only to compression and ventral to the pivotal axis, a thickened periostracum develops, forcing the dorsal margins of the valves to act as pivotal axis, and the posterior parts of the shell's dorsal margins gape dorsally. In Nuculana (Palaeotaxodonta), the inner layer of the ligament is internal, the outer layer is external but reduced, and some species develop a dorsal ridge parallel to the commissural plane, on a level with the rostrum and acting as pivotal axis. In Pterotrigonia (Palaeoheterodonta) and other rostrate trigoniides, the ligament is external opisthodetic, but is allometrically reduced. Trigoniides may also develop a dorsal ridge.

Changes in soil chemistry in response to varying climatic regimes can alter the equilibria of soil systems and result in different clay minerals. Variations in phyllosilicate clay composition can reflect temporal and spatial climatic changes, such as summer/winter monsoon cycles. The objective of this research was to investigate the mineralogy of the clay fractions as a proxy for determining variations in the East Asian monsoon climate, based on a section at Chaoyang in China spanning the last 0.423 Ma BP. The clay mineralogy record in the Chaoyang section was compared with other proxies as recorded in this section and with other palaeoclimatic indicators, including oxygen isotopes from oceanic sediments and loess–palaeosol sections on the Chinese Loess Plateau (CLP). The results from clay mineralogy and related climatic studies show that the summer monsoon has a trend of four increased stages and four decreased stages; whereas the winter monsoon displays the opposite trend. During the last 0.423 Ma BP, the strongest winter monsoon occurred around 0.243–0.311 Ma BP. During this period, which included an intense winter monsoon, the soil in the section had the least illite, one of the smallest kaolinite and illite/Chlorite (I/C) indices and an overall decreasing clay content. The period 0.225–0.243 Ma BP had the strongest summer monsoon over the last 0.423 Ma BP. This period had the greatest amount of illite, the highest I/C index, greater overall clay content and the strongest magnetic susceptibility signal. Additionally, this section contained the smallest mean grain size. The multi-monsoon climate cycles of alternating cold-dry and warm-moist conditions as recorded in the Chaoyang section corresponded well with multiple glaciation cycles based on deep sea sediments. This indicates that the Chaoyang section provides a record of palaeoclimate changes in northeast China that can be linked to mineralogical suites to assist in reconstructing the palaeoclimate over the Late Middle Pleistocene, and complements the global palaeoclimate records in the CLP.

Development of shale gas by hydraulic fracturing (‘fracking’) is opposed by campaigners who propose (inter alia) that freshwater aquifers could be polluted by upward migration of fractures and any fluids they contain. Prima facie hydrogeological analysis of this proposition has been undertaken. For it to occur, two conditions must be satisfied:

1. (i) sufficient hydraulic interconnection (i.e., a continuous permeable pathway); and

2. (ii) a sustained driving head, oriented upwards.

With regard to (i), shale gas developers have a major vested interest in avoiding creating such hydraulic connection, as it would result in uneconomically excessive amounts of water needing to be pumped from their wells to achieve gas production. In relation to (ii), nominal upward hydraulic gradients will typically only be developed during fracking for periods of a few hours, which is far too brief to achieve solute transport over vertical intervals of one or more kilometres; thereafter, depressurisation of wells to allow gas to flow will result in downward hydraulic gradients being maintained for many years. The proposition is therefore found to be unsupportable. Albeit for contrasting motivations, developers and environmental guardians turn out to have a strong common interest in avoiding inter-connection to aquifers.

A powerful illustration of the potential long-term effects of fracking is provided by the hydrogeological history of underground coal mining in the UK. Where large-scale mining proceeded from the surface downwards, major hydraulic inter-connection of shallow and deep zones resulted in widespread water pollution. However, where new mines were developed at depth without connections to shallow old workings (as in the Selby Coalfield, Yorkshire), complete hydraulic isolation from the near-surface hydrogeological environment was successfully maintained. This was despite far greater stratal disruption and induced seismicity than shale gas fracking could ever produce. The lesson is clear: without hydrogeological connectivity to shallow aquifers, shale gas fracking per se cannot contaminate shallow ground water.

Four kinds of robust elements have been recognised in Amorphognathus quinquiradiatus Moskalenko, 1977 (in Kanygin et al. 1977) from the early Late Ordovician of Siberia, indicating that at least 17 elements were present in the apparatus, one of them similar to the P1 element of the Early Silurian Distomodus. The new generic name Moskalenkodus is proposed for these conodonts with a pterospathodontid-like S series element morphology. This implies that the related Distomodus, Pterospathodus and Gamachignathus lineages had a long cryptic evolutionary history, probably ranging back to the early Ordovician, when they split from the lineage of Icriodella, having a duplicated M location in common. The balognathid Promissum, with a 19-element apparatus, may have shared ancestry with Icriodella in Ordovician high latitudes, with Sagittodontina, Lenodus, Trapezognathus and Phragmodus as possible connecting links. The pattern of the unbalanced contribution of Baltoniodus element types to samples suggests that duplication of M and P2 series elements may have been an early event in the evolution of balognathids. The proposed scenario implies a profound transformation of the mouth region in the evolution of conodonts. The probable original state was a chaetognath-like arrangement of coniform elements; all paired and of relatively uniform morphology. This was modified at the origin of protopanderodontids by the introduction of a medial S0 element, which resulted in the separation of the exposed unit of M and S series elements from the P series elements hidden in the throat. A rotation of the S series elements to an almost horizontal position in early prioniodontids may have promoted duplication of the M element pair. In Gamachignathus, Icriodella and Pterospathodus lineages, these elements are differentiated morphologically. Subsequent anteriorward bending of the P element series caused duplication of the balognathid P2 element pair, but they remained undifferentiated, even in the otherwise elaborate Promissum. The whole clade of conodonts with supernumerary element pairs in the apparatus has its roots in high latitudes of the Ordovician.

The pseudosuchian archosaur Ornithosuchus, from the Lossiemouth Sandstone Formation (Late Triassic), Scotland, was the first ornithosuchid to be discovered, and the only one recorded, in the northern hemisphere. The fossil record of “Ornithosuchus longidens” is mainly based on natural moulds and, in a few cases, three-dimensional bony elements, complicating the interpretation of its anatomy. The taxonomy of this species has changed several times since the late 1800s and here we revisit its current status. The synonymy of “Dasygnathoides longidens” and Ornithosuchus woodwardi proposed by Walker (1964) is rejected, based on new interpretations of the holotype and referred specimens of “Dasygnathoides longidens”. The latter species is considered as a nomen dubium, because it lacks diagnostic features and cannot be identified beyond Pseudosuchia. As a result, Ornithosuchus woodwardi is resurrected as a valid species and its diagnosis is emended. The body size range of Ornithosuchus woodwardi is reduced to about a half, because ELGNM 1, previously considered the largest specimen of the genus, can no longer be referred to it. “Dasygnathoides longidens” cannot be assigned to any of the known archosauriforms from the Lossiemouth Sandstone Formation, but it still represents the largest predator currently known for its fauna.

Coal and hydrocarbons have been exploited from the Carboniferous rocks of the Midland Valley for over 200 years. This work characterises organic matter from the Mississippian black shales of the Midland Valley from Wardie, Scotland. Biomarker analysis allowed the estimation of the degree of microbial transformation of organic matter, type of kerogen and thermal maturity during hydrocarbon generation. Parameters based on the biomarker indicators confirm a generally mixed type II/III kerogen. However, some samples contain mostly terrestrial organic matter, whilst others contain predominantly marine organic matter, which shows that the sedimentary environment varied greatly throughout the basin. The presence of gammacerane suggests water column stratification and anoxic conditions. Organic matter was much better protected from post-depositional alteration within the concretions, where higher TOC (total organic carbon) and TS (total sulphur) contents occur, than in the surrounding sediments. This can be induced by very early diagenetic formation of these concretions which protected organic matter from late diagenetic degradation.

Estimated values of vitrinite reflectance (Rc, Rcs) show that the sedimentary rocks reached the catagenesis stage. Most samples exhibit maximum organic matter maturation temperatures of around c60–90°C. However, stable isomers of phenyldibenzo[b,d]thiophene detected in some samples indicate that in some cases post-depositional hydrothermal activity affected maturation of organic matter increasing temperatures to as high as c174°C.

The position of the Falkland Islands adjacent to the South American continental margin belies the close association of their geology with that of South Africa. A Mesoproterozoic basement is unconformably overlain by a Silurian to Devonian succession of fluvial to neritic and shallow marine, siliciclastic strata. This is disconformably succeeded by a largely Permian succession that, near its base, includes a glacigenic diamictite and, thence, passes upwards into a succession of deltaic and lacustrine strata. The lithological succession and the character of its deformation bear striking similarities to the Cape Fold Belt and Karoo retroarc foreland basin. Swarms of Early Jurassic dykes were coeval with the Karoo magmatism and the initial break-up of Gondwana; Early Cretaceous dykes were intruded during the opening of the South Atlantic Ocean. Offshore sedimentary basins surrounding the archipelago contain Late Jurassic to Palaeogene successions and are currently the focus of hydrocarbon exploration. Best known is the North Falkland Basin, a classic failed rift. To the SE, the passive margin, Falkland Plateau Basin may also be rift-controlled, whilst the South Falkland Basin is a foreland basin created at the boundary of the South American and Scotia plates. The role of the Falkland Islands during the breakup of Gondwana remains controversial. Compelling evidence from the onshore geology favours rotation of an independent microplate from an original position adjacent to the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Alternative interpretations, justified largely from offshore geology, favour extension of the Falkland Plateau as a fixed promontory from the South American margin.

Little is known about the tooth wear of South American theropod dinosaurs. This paper describes wear facets in Abelisauridae, Carcharodontosauridae and some indeterminate theropods teeth, from the Marília Formation. Four types of wear facets are proposed: vertically-oriented attritional striations; perpendicular attritional surfaces; oval wear facets; and apical grooves. All these worn surfaces were produced by dental occlusion, except the apical grooves, which are produced by the contact between predator teeth and the prey bone during predator–prey interaction. More detailed biomechanical and hardness testing of teeth and bone may further elucidate the pattern of tooth wear in theropods.

Morphological studies of the braincase and cranial endocast of fossil crocodylians, especially gavialids, are scarce. Here, we present a detailed description of the neuroanatomy of Gryposuchus neogaeus from the Miocene of Argentina, based on CT scans. The cranial endocast is sub-horizontal and the angle formed between the mid-brain and the hind-brain is poorly marked. When compared with Gavialis gangeticus, the mid-brain of G. neogaeus is relatively shorter, although the distribution of cranial nerves is similar. In the floor of the endocranial cavity, posterior to the dorsum sellae, there is a median foramen that leads into a canal that runs anteroventrally through the basisphenoid to penetrate the posterior wall of the pituitary fossa (open foramen for the basilar artery?). The same structure is present in G. gangeticus, but is absent in other living crocodylians, suggesting a potential synapomorphy of Gavialoidea. The pneumaticity of the skull roof and the lateral branches of the pharyngotympanic system in G. neogaeus are markedly reduced when compared with the extant species. Comparisons with the living Gavialis indicate that the pattern of braincase morphology of Gavialidae was present in the Miocene; however, the internal morphology, including brain shape, pneumaticity of the skull roof and basicranium, is different in the two species. This work is the first step to understand the variation of the neuroanatomy in this group of archosaurs and its palaeobiological implication.