Objective: Temporary pacing wires play a crucial role in the diagnosis and therapy of post-operative arrhythmia after surgery for congenital heart disease. At present, bipolar pacing wires are used in most institutions. In case of functional failure of these wires, a unipolar mode of stimulation and sensing should be theoretically possible as a rescue procedure. Methods: We tested the feasibility of the customised unipolar mode in 18 post-operative patients with congenital heart disease (age 9.2 ± 13.9 months, weight 6.3 ± 3.8 kg, and cardiopulmonary bypass time 70 ± 29 minutes). As there are two possible unipolar configurations, there are twice the number of testing parameters; of those, we compared sensing (mV) and pacing thresholds (V at 0.5 ms). Results: Atrial sensing was significantly better in the unipolar modes (p < 0.001, p < 0.003). The ventricular unipolar sensing did not differ significantly in the “better” of the two possible configurations from the bipolar values (p = 0.363). For the unipolar pacing thresholds, only the “better” unipolar configuration did not differ significantly from the bipolar measurements (atrial: p = 0.058, ventricular: p = 0.138). There was no exit block or undersensing. Conclusion: The results demonstrate that unipolar stimulation and sensing using bipolar epicardial temporary pacing wires is feasible. In the case of failure of bipolar temporary pacing wires, this modality represents an easy rescue measure that in such cases should always be considered.

Assessment of foetal cardiac function is more challenging than in the adult, in whom emerging technologies are tested. The postnatal cardio-respiratory interaction is replaced by the cardio-placental circulation and impedance of the brain, and distal vascular beds play an important role in modulating flow to enable its redistribution in the foetal body. Prenatal specialists, comprising obstetricians and cardiologists, have tested a variety of traditional methodologies, as well as non-Doppler offline ultrasound methods in the foetus. This article reviews the development of techniques, outlines their use, and draws attention to pitfalls in adapting technologies validated in the adult heart to the small, fast beating, remote, and largely ungated foetal heart.

Background: Assessment of right ventricular function is a key point in the follow-up of operated patients with tetralogy of Fallot. Cardiac magnetic resonance assessment of right ventricular function is considered the gold standard. However, this technique is expensive, has limited availability, and requires significant expertise to acquire and interpret the images. Myocardial performance index and isovolumic acceleration have recently been studied for the assessment of right ventricular function and are shown to be simple yet powerful tools for assessing patients with right ventricular dysfunction of various origins. Methods: In this study, the integrity of myocardial performance index and isovolumic acceleration obtained by tissue Doppler imaging echocardiography to quantify right ventricular function was assessed in 31 patients operated for tetralogy of Fallot. Myocardial performance index and isovolumic acceleration measurements were compared with the parameters derived by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging. Results: In this study, a significant correlation has not been detected between cardiac magnetic resonance-originated right ventricular ejection fraction, pulmonary regurgitation fraction and myocardial performance index, isovolumic acceleration obtained by tissue Doppler imaging echocardiography from the lateral tricuspid annulus of the right ventricle. Conclusion: We have concluded that when evaluated separately, myocardial performance index and isovolumic acceleration obtained from tissue Doppler imaging echocardiography can be used in the long-term follow-up of patients who have been operated for tetralogy of Fallot, but that they do not show correlation with cardiac magnetic resonance-originated right ventricle ejection fraction and pulmonary regurgitation fraction.

Arterial thrombosis in neonates and children is a rare event and is often associated with external risk factors such as asphyxia or sepsis. We report our experiences with two neonates with spontaneous aortic arch thrombosis mimicking aortic coarctation. Despite single case reports until now, no data exist for the underlying thrombophilic risk factors and prognosis of this rare event. Both patients were carriers of a heterozygous factor V Leiden mutation, which has been reported once before as a risk factor for aortic arch thrombosis. One of our patients was operated upon successfully and is alive. The second patient suffered a large infarction of the right medial cerebral artery and had a thrombotic occlusion of the inferior caval vein. The patient obtained palliative care and died at the age of 6 days. In the literature, we identified 19 patients with neonatal aortic arch thrombosis. Of the 19 patients, 11 (58%) died. Including the two reported patients, the mortality rate of patients with multiple thromboses was 80% (8/10) compared with 18% (2/11) for patients with isolated aortic arch thrombosis; this difference reached statistical significance (p = 0.009). The analysis of thrombophilic disorders revealed that factor V Leiden mutation and protein C deficiency seem to be the most common risk factors for aortic arch thrombosis. Conclusion: Neonatal aortic arch thrombosis is a very rare but life-threatening event, with a high rate of mortality, especially if additional thrombotic complications are present. Factor V Leiden mutation seems to be one important risk factor in the pathogenesis of this fatal disease.

Introduction: Early detection of cardiovascular disease in children with end-stage renal disease is essential in order to prevent cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in early adulthood. Tissue Doppler imaging has shown to be a promising method to detect and quantify subtle abnormalities in diastolic function. We therefore compared assessment of diastolic function by conventional echocardiography and tissue Doppler imaging. Methods: We performed conventional echocardiography and tissue Doppler imaging in 38 children with end-stage renal disease and 76 healthy controls. We compared outcomes on parameters related to diastolic function (E/a ratio for conventional echocardiography and E/E′ ratio for tissue Doppler imaging) for both groups using multiple linear regression analysis. Diastolic dysfunction was defined as E/a ratio <1 or E/E′ ratio > 95th percentile for age. To assess the intra-observer reproducibility, the coefficient of variation was calculated. Results: Children with end-stage renal disease had on average a lower E/a ratio (p = 0.004) and a higher mitral and septal E/E′ ratio (both p < 0.001) compared with controls. In all, two children with end-stage renal disease (5%) had diastolic dysfunction according to the E/a ratio, 11 according to the mitral E/E′ ratio (29%), and 16 according to the septal E/E′ ratio (42%) compared with none of the controls (p = 0.109, p < 0.001, and p < 0.001, respectively). The coefficients of variation of the mitral (7%) and septal E/E′ ratio (4%) were smaller than the coefficient of variation of the E/a ratio (11%). Conclusions: Tissue Doppler imaging is a more sensitive and reliable method to detect diastolic dysfunction than conventional E/a ratio in children with end-stage renal disease.

Background: Vasodilator stress perfusion cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging is a clinically useful tool for detection of clinically significant myocardial ischaemia in adults. We report our 5-year retrospective experience with perfusion cardiovascular magnetic resonance in a large, quarternary adult congenital heart disease centre. Methods: We reviewed all cases of perfusion cardiovascular magnetic resonance in patients referred from the adult congenital heart disease service. Dipyridamole stress perfusion cardiovascular magnetic resonance was undertaken on commercially available 1.5 and 3 T cardiovascular magnetic resonance scanners. Late gadolinium enhancement imaging was performed 8–10 minutes after completion of the rest perfusion sequence. Navigator whole-heart coronary magnetic resonance angiography was also performed where feasible. Results of stress cardiovascular magnetic resonance were correlated with complementary imaging studies, surgery, and clinical outcomes. Results: Over 5 years, we performed 34 stress perfusion cardiovascular magnetic resonance examinations (11 positive). In all, 84% of patients had further investigations for ischaemia in addition to cardiovascular magnetic resonance. Within a subgroup of 19 patients who had definitive alternative assessment of their coronary arteries, stress perfusion cardiovascular magnetic resonance demonstrated a sensitivity of 82% and specificity of 100%. Of the 34 studies, two were false negatives, in which the aetiology of ischaemia was extrinsic arterial compression rather than intrinsic coronary luminal narrowing. Coronary abnormalities were identified in 71% of cases who had coronary magnetic resonance angiography. Conclusion: Stress perfusion cardiovascular magnetic resonance is a useful and accurate tool for investigation of myocardial ischaemia in an adult congenital heart disease population with suspected non-atherosclerotic coronary abnormalities.

Between January, 2002 and December, 2011, 27 patients (19 boys) underwent pericardiectomy. The mean age was 9.3 ± 4.96 years (range 0.4 to 15 years) and the mean duration of symptoms was 16.9 ± 22.15 months. In all, 25 patients had dyspnoea; eight were in New York Heart Association (NYHA) class IV; six had bacterial pericarditis; and 18 were on anti-tuberculosis treatment, although only nine had records suggesting tuberculosis. There were nine patients who underwent pre-operative pigtail catheter drainage of pericardial fluid. Surgical procedures were complete pericardiectomy (n = 20), partial pericardiectomy (n = 6), and pleuropericardial window (n = 1).The mean pre-operative right atrial pressure was 20.4 ± 4.93 mmHg. There were six hospital deaths due to low cardiac output (n = 5) and arrhythmia (n = 1). The mean intensive care unit stay was 2.7 ± 1.2 days and mean post-operative stay was 9.9 days. The mean right atrial pressure dropped to 8.7 ± 1.15 mmHg. Adverse outcomes defined as death/prolonged intensive care unit stay, prolonged post-operative stay were not associated with sex, diagnosis of tuberculosis or pyopericardium, or the duration of symptoms or pre-operative right atrial pressure. Younger patients had prolonged intensive care unit stay (p = 0.03) but not increased mortality. Advanced NYHA class predicted death (p = 0.02). The mean follow-up was 23.1 ± 23.8 months. All except one survivor are in NYHA class I and off all cardiac medications. Despite adequate surgery, pericardiectomy in children is associated with a high mortality, which is related to delayed surgery and poor pre-operative general condition. No specific pre-operative variable other than worse pre-operative NYHA class is a predictor of survival. Therefore, early pericardiectomy should be undertaken in such patients.

Introduction: Ischaemia-modified albumin, a novel biochemical marker for tissue ischaemia, was found to be associated with oxidative stress. The purpose of this study was to assess the role of ischaemia-modified albumin in the diagnosis of acute rheumatic fever and also to evaluate the ischaemia-modified albumin levels in children with heart valve disease. Methods: The study groups, aged 5–18 years, consisted of 128 individuals – 40 with acute rheumatic fever, 35 with congenital heart valve disease, 33 with chronic rheumatic heart disease, and 20 healthy control subjects. Results: The ischaemia-modified albumin, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and C-reactive protein levels of the acute rheumatic fever group were significantly higher than those in the chronic rheumatic heart disease, congenital heart valve disease, and control groups, separately (p < 0.001). The ischaemia-modified albumin levels in both carditis and isolated arthritis subgroups of children with acute rheumatic fever were significantly higher than in the control group (p < 0.001, p < 0.01, respectively). However, there was no statistically significant difference between the chorea subgroup and control subjects. In addition, significant correlations were observed between ischaemia-modified albumin and acute phase reactants of patients with acute rheumatic fever (p < 0.001 for both erythrocyte sedimentation rate and C-reactive protein). The ischaemia-modified albumin levels of chronic rheumatic heart disease, congenital heart valve disease, and control subjects were similar. Conclusions: The increased level of ischaemia-modified albumin in children with acute rheumatic fever seems to be associated with inflammation. However, further studies are needed to provide stronger evidence.

Outpatient management of patients with structurally or functionally abnormal cardiac valves combines an ability to record an appropriate history, a directed physical examination, a knowledge of both the interpretation as well as the context of any associated testing, and an understanding of the care guidelines in the medical literature. This article attempts to integrate these various features to guide the clinician towards more appropriate and timely management of patients with cardiac valve disease.

The update course in foetal cardiology held by the Fetal Working Group of the Association for European Paediatric and Congenital Cardiology in Istanbul in May 2012 included a session on foetal cardiac therapy. In the introductory overview to this symposium, we critically examine the level of evidence supporting or refuting proposed foetal cardiac therapies including transplacental treatment of foetal tachyarrhythmias, steroid treatment in foetal atrioventricular block, and foetal aortic valvuloplasty. In summary, the evidence for the efficiency and safety of currently available foetal cardiac therapies is low, with no therapy based on a randomised controlled trial. Transplacental treatment of foetal tachycardia is generally accepted as effective and safe, based on extensive and widespread clinical experience; however, there is no consensus on which drugs are the most effective in different electrophysiological situations. Randomised studies may be able to resolve this, but this is complicated because tachyarrhythmias are relatively rare conditions, the foetus is not accessible for direct treatment, and it is the healthy mother who accepts treatment she does not need on behalf of her foetus. The indications for steroid treatment in foetal atrioventricular block and for foetal valvuloplasty are even more controversial. Although randomised trials would be desirable, the practical issues of recruiting sufficient sample sizes and controlling for variation in practice across multiple sites is not to be underestimated. Multicentre registries, analysed free of bias, may be an alternative way to improve the evidence base of foetal cardiac therapy.

Objective: Acute kidney injury is common in neonates following surgery for congenital heart disease. We conducted a retrospective analysis to determine whether neonates with smaller pre-operative renal volume were more likely to develop post-operative acute kidney injury. Design/Setting: We conducted a retrospective review of 72 neonates who underwent congenital heart surgery for any lesion other than patent ductus arteriosus at our institution from January 2007 to December 2011. Renal volume was calculated by ultrasound using the prolate ellipsoid formula. The presence and severity of post-operative acute kidney injury was determined both by measuring the peak serum creatinine in the first 7 days post-operatively and by using the Acute Kidney Injury Network scoring system. Results: Using a linear change point model, a threshold renal volume of 17 cm3 was identified. Below this threshold, there was an inverse linear relationship between renal volume and peak post-operative creatinine for all patients (p = 0.036) and the subgroup with a single morphologic right ventricle (p = 0.046). There was a non-significant trend towards more acute kidney injury using Acute Kidney Injury Network criteria in all neonates with renal volume ≤17 cm3 (p = 0.11) and in the subgroup with a single morphologic right ventricle (p = 0.17). Conclusions: Pre-operative renal volume ≤17 cm3 is associated with a higher peak post-operative creatinine and potentially greater risk for post-operative acute kidney injury for neonates undergoing congenital heart surgery. Neonates with a single right ventricle may be at higher risk.

Objective: To determine whether blood levels of the brain-specific biomarker glial fibrillary acidic protein rise during cardiopulmonary bypass for repair of congenital heart disease. Methods: This is a prospective observational pilot study to characterise the blood levels of glial fibrillary acidic protein during bypass. Children <21 years of age undergoing bypass for congenital heart disease at Johns Hopkins Hospital and Texas Children's Hospital were enrolled. Blood samples were collected during four phases: pre-bypass, cooling, re-warming, and post-bypass. Results: A total of 85 patients were enrolled between October, 2010 and May, 2011. The median age was 0.73 years (range 0.01–17). The median weight was 7.14 kilograms (range 2.2–86.5). Single ventricle anatomy was present in 18 patients (22%). Median glial fibrillary acidic protein values by phase were: pre-bypass: 0 ng/ml (range 0–0.35); cooling: 0.039 (0–0.68); re-warming: 0.165 (0–2.29); and post-bypass: 0.112 (0–0.97). There were significant elevations from pre-bypass to all subsequent stages, with the greatest increase during re-warming (p = 0.0001). Maximal levels were significantly related to younger age (p = 0.03), bypass time (p = 0.03), cross-clamp time (p = 0.047), and temperature nadir (0.04). Peak levels did not vary significantly in those with single ventricle anatomy versus two ventricle repairs. Conclusion: There are significant increases in glial fibrillary acidic protein levels in children undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass for repair of congenital heart disease. The highest values were seen during the re-warming phase. Elevations are significantly associated with younger age, bypass and cross-clamp times, and temperature nadir. Owing to the fact that glial fibrillary acidic protein is the most brain-specific biomarker identified to date, it may act as a rapid diagnostic marker of brain injury during cardiac surgery.

Background: This study evaluated the effectiveness of long-term intensive lipid-lowering therapy in children and adolescents with familial hypercholesterolaemia. Methods: The charts of 89 children and adolescents with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia among ∼1000 patients treated from 1974 to 2008 were reviewed. Familial hypercholesterolaemia was defined as low-density lipoprotein cholesterol level >90th percentile in individuals with a history of familial hypercholesterolaemia. Results: Of the 89 patients, 51% were male; the mean age at diagnosis was 8 ± 4 years, and the mean follow-up was 13 ± 8 years. Baseline and most recent low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels (mg/dl) under treatment were 250 ± 50 and 142 ± 49, respectively, reduced 43% from baseline (p < 0.0001). At the most recent visit, 39 patients received statin monotherapy, mainly atorvastatin or rosuvastatin, and 50 (56%) patients received combination therapy, mainly vytorin or rosuvastain/ezetimibe, 15 patients were >30 years of age, and none developed symptomatic cardiovascular disease or needed revascularisation. Conclusions: Long-term statin-based therapy can reduce low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in most children and adolescents with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia and decrease cardiovascular risk significantly.

Valvar heart disease can be complicated by hemodynamic derangements, depending on the degree of the abnormality. Stenosis causes pressure overload of the chamber draining through the valve and regurgitation results in volume overload. Many lesions have a component of both, resulting in both pressure and volume overload. Increased wall stress causes myocardial stretching and fibrosis, resulting in scarring; a nidus for arrhythmia development. Arrhythmias can complicate the clinical picture and increase the morbidity and mortality in patients with both congenital and acquired valvar disease. In adults with congenital heart disease, arrhythmias are the most common cause of sudden death, followed by heart failure. Valvar stenosis and insufficiency certainly contribute to this. This article highlights the need for arrhythmia surveillance for high-risk valvar lesions.