The female sex pheromone gland of Diparopsis castanea Hmps. consists of modified intersegmental tissue between the eighth and ninth abdominal segments. Glands contain an average of 12·73 ×10–3 μg of pheromone consisting of 80·4±2·0% trans-9, 11-dodecadien-l-yl acetate (range 72·7–86·7%) and 19·6±2·0% 11-dodecen-l-yl acetate (range 13·3–27·3%). Although no significant correlation exists between female body weight and pheromone content of the gland, the duration of sex pheromone release over the lifespan of a female is positively correlated with its weight on emergence. Six behavioural steps may be recognised in the precopulatory behaviour of females but the frequency and duration of sex pheromone release is strongly influenced by both temperature and light intensity. At 25°C females typically ‘call’ on two or more occasions for 41–50% of the night, calling commencing earlier at cool (13·4°C) temperatures than at moderate (19·4°C) or warm (25·0°C) temperatures. Calling by mated females increases considerably from four to five nights after mating but is typically of shorter duration than for virgins. The dispersal flight of Diparopsis males in cotton crops commences almost immediately after sunset and before the end of dusk, with peak male catches in sex pheromone traps occurring earlier in the cooler months of May and June (20.00–22.00 h) than in November (02.00–04.00 h). The Diparopsis synthetic sex pheromone, dicastalure, traps a greater proportion of males and females both earlier and later in the night than virgin females and this ‘timing advantage’ may be important in a pheromone control programme based on disruption of communication between the sexes.

During translocations of black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis Linnaeus) in Kenya, we studied the relationships between the rhinoceros and biting flies. In trapping experiments, rhinoceros waste products (urine or dung) were substituted for known attractants such as cow urine, l-octen-3-ol or acetone. Catches of Glossina pallidipes Austen, Glossina longipennis Corti, Stomoxys spp., and Haematopota spp. were not affected by these substitutions. NG2G and Vavoua traps sited near captive animals caught similar numbers and kinds of flies as traps set without animals. Any minor attractive properties of rhinoceros odours were probably due to the presence of known attractants such as 4-cresol and 3-n-propylphenol, which were confirmed to be present through gas chromatography—mass spectroscopy. In feeding trials with laboratory-reared tsetse, Glossina brevipalpis Newstead and Glossina morsitans centralis Machado fed well on immobilized animals, whereas G. longipennis fed reluctantly. Catches of G. brevipalpis were doubled in one trapping experiment when rhinoceros urine was used as odour bait. Philoliche spp., Haematopota spp. and other Tabanidae fed on captive rhinoceroses. Many species of Stomoxyinae were associated with rhinoceroses. Of these, the most frequent association was with Rhinomusca dutoiti Zumpt, a species found previously only in South Africa. Rhinomusca dutoiti was found in two highland rhinoceros sanctuaries, Nairobi National Park and Solio Ranch Game Reserve.

Pistachio twig borer, Kermania pistaciella is an important pest of pistachio trees. It has an univoltine life-cycle and its larvae tunnel and feed inside pistachio twigs for almost 10 months each year. The last larval instars overwinter inside the twigs. Survival/mortality associated with low temperatures during overwintering stage is currently unknown. We found that overwintering larvae of the Rafsanjan (Iran) population of K. pistaciella rely on maintaining a stably high supercooling capacity throughout the cold season. Their supercooling points (SCPs) ranged between −19.4 and −22.7°C from October to February. Larvae were able to survive 24 h exposures to −15°C anytime during the cold season. During December and January, larvae were undergoing quiescence type of dormancy caused probably by low ambient temperatures and/or changes in host tree physiology (tree dormancy). Larvae attain highest cold tolerance (high survival at −20°C) during dormancy, which offers them sufficient protection against geographically and ecologically relevant cold spells. High cold tolerance during dormancy was not associated with accumulation of any low-molecular mass cryoprotective substances. The SCP sets the limit of cold tolerance in pistachio twig borer, meaning that high mortality of overwintering populations can be expected only in the regions or years where or when the temperatures fall below the average larval SCP (i.e., below −20°C). Partial mortality can be expected also when temperatures repeatedly drop close to the SCP on a diurnal basis.

Vegetation is the most important factor in determining the suitability or otherwise of an area for tsetse-flies. In all cases Glossina pallidipes occurs in what is known throughout South Africa as “bush-veld,” and, as a rule, “bush-veld” is only to be found at comparatively low altitudes (Plates xxxii, xxxiii). In Zululand it occurs from a few feet above sea-level, e.g., west shore of False Bay, to approximately 1,500 ft., e.g., eastern slopes of Ubombo Range. Glossina then may be expected to exist anywhere in the hundreds of square miles covered by trees which vary from stunted “munga” (Acacia natalitia) to the tall “umhlosinga” (Acacia xanthophloea). In some places the trees have bare trunks, e.g., “mxama” (Schotia brachypetala) and “mgano” (Sclerocarya caffra), especially where the soil is sandy. Glades up to several acres in extent may also be seen. Along the banks of rivers and in the valleys, however, the bush is generally thick, there being much undergrowth, with a canopy, overhead consisting very often of “mtomboti” (Spirostachys africana) and “mkaya” (Acacia welwitschii). There are also dotted about thickets comprising several species of Celastrus and Acacia, but a common formation is that of “mqawe” (Acacia benthami), which is dense and at times impenetrable. The dominant grass in the areas that are fairly well timbered is “ubabe” (Panicum maximum), while in the more open areas “insinde” (Anthistiria imberbis) is by far the commonest grass. In Ingwavuma, Ubombo and Hlabisa (eastern) Divisions the “fly” country is level or rather undulating; while in Mahlabatini and Lower Umfolosi Magistracies it is, on the whole, very broken, there being a constant succession of stony, sparsely bushed ridges and deep tortuous wooded ravines.

Activity in virgin and pregnant females of Glossina morsitans morsitans Westw. was very low and mostly took the form of short bursts of flight. Recently-fed virgins and females in early and mid-pregnancy were least active. In late pregnancy, activity increased and more walking occurred. In all classes of females, activity was least around midday, but the V-shaped curve became less pronounced as parturition approached. There was evidence of a slight preference for black over white surfaces when landing but a clear preference for black resting sites. Virgin females preferred to alight and rest on vertical surfaces at the borders of areas of visual contrast; pregnant females preferred to alight and rest on horizontal surfaces and showed no attraction to regions of contrast. In a horizontal light gradient, pregnant females selected lighter resting sites as the day progressed. In late pregnancy, there was an increasing tendency to rest in darker sites. Increasing the temperature in the light gradient caused an increase in activity around 34°C and a switch to photonegative behaviour. After larviposition, the females became strongly photopositive even at high temperature (38°C), but after a feed they reverted to the ‘normal’ photonegative response to high temperature.

Diaphania indica (Saunders) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) is an important phytophagous pest of Trichosanthes anguina L. in India. We studied life table parameters by age-stage, two-sex, amylolytic and proteolytic activities, and food utilization parameters of D. indica on the leaves of three T. anguina cultivars (Baruipur Long, Polo No. 1 and MNSR-1). Further, nutrients (total carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, amino acids and nitrogen) and antinutrients (total phenols, flavonols and tannins) in leaves were determined. The development time (egg to adult emergence) was the shortest on MNSR-1 (19.79 d) and the longest on Polo No. 1 (25.72 d). Fecundity was the highest and lowest on MNSR-1 (259 eggs) and Polo No. 1 (151.22 eggs), respectively. The lowest intrinsic rate of increase (rm) and net reproductive rate (R0) of D. indica on Polo No. 1 were 0.1112 d−1 and 27.22 offspring individual−1, respectively. The mean generation time (T) was the shortest on MNSR-1 (23.99 days) and the longest on Polo No. 1 (29.70 d). The larvae of D. indica fed with MNSR-1 had the highest level of amylolytic and proteolytic activities, and the lowest activities were in the larvae fed with Polo No. 1. The fifth-instar larvae fed with Polo No. 1 had the lowest consumption index and growth rate. The higher larval development time and lower fecundity of D. indica on Polo No. 1 were due to the lower level of nutrients and a higher level of antinutrients than other cultivars. Our results concluded that Polo No. 1 cultivar could be suggested for cultivation.

In view of the discovery of several new species and subspecies of Amblypelta (Hemiptera, COREIDAE), some of which are either known to be or else threaten to become of economic importance, a revision of the whole genus has become necessary.

The genus Amblypelta, as defined in the present paper and as known so far, is confined to Australia north of Sydney, the islands between Australia and New Guinea, New Guinea and, to the west, the Kai Is., Timor and Java; the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands including Bougainville, Eennell and Bellona; the New Hebrides and New Caledonia. In the present revision of the genus, twelve species and five subspecies are included, of which all but seven species are new to science. Apart from the descriptions of the new species and subspecies, taxonomic notes on the previously known species are given as well as a key to all the species.

The known distribution of each species is stated, and consideration given to the zoogeography of the genus as a whole, and of certain species-groups which can be recognised within the genus.

Polar terrestrial invertebrates are suggested as being vulnerable to temperature change relative to lower latitude species, and hence possibly also to climate warming. Previous studies have shown Antarctic and Arctic Collembola and Acari to possess good heat tolerance and survive temperature exposures above 30 °C. To test this feature further, the heat tolerance and physiological plasticity of heat stress were explored in the Arctic collembolan, Megaphorura arctica, from Svalbard and the Antarctic midge, Eretmoptera murphyi, from Signy Island. The data obtained demonstrate considerable heat tolerance in both species, with upper lethal temperatures ≥35 °C (1 h exposures), and tolerance of exposure to 10 and 15 °C exceeding 56 days. This tolerance is far beyond that required in their current environment. Average microhabitat temperatures in August 2011 ranged between 5.1 and 8.1 °C, and rarely rose above 10 °C, in Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard. Summer soil microhabitat temperatures on Signy Island have previously been shown to range between 0 and 10 °C. There was also evidence to suggest that E. murphyi can recover from high-temperature exposure and that M. arctica is capable of rapid heat hardening. M. arctica and E. murphyi therefore have the physiological capacity to tolerate current environmental conditions, as well as future warming. If the features they express are characteristically more general, such polar terrestrial invertebrates will likely fare well under climate warming scenarios.

Bruchus pisorum (L.) is one of the most intractable pest problems of cultivated pea in Europe. Development of resistant cultivars is very important to environmental protection and would solve this problem to a great extent. Therefore, the resistance of five spring pea cultivars was studied to B. pisorum: Glyans, Modus; Kamerton and Svit and Pleven 4 based on the weevil damage and chemical composition of seeds. The seeds were classified as three types: healthy seeds (type one), damaged seeds with parasitoid emergence holes (type two) and damaged seeds with bruchid emergence holes (type three). From visibly damaged pea seeds by pea weevil B. pisorum was isolated the parasitoid Triaspis thoracica Curtis (Hymenoptera, Braconidae). Modus, followed by Glyans was outlined as resistant cultivars against the pea weevil. They had the lowest total damaged seed degree, loss in weight of damaged seeds (type two and type three) and values of susceptibility coefficients. A strong negative relationship (r = −0.838) between the weight of type one seeds and the proportion of type three seeds was found. Cultivars with lower protein and phosphorus (P) content had a lower level of damage. The crude protein, crude fiber and P content in damaged seeds significantly or no significantly were increased as compared with the healthy seeds due to weevil damage. The P content had the highest significant influence on pea weevil infestation. Use of chemical markers for resistance to the creation of new pea cultivars can be effective method for defense and control against B. pisorum.

Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood, 1856) (Greenhouse whitefly) is an agricultural pest of global importance. It is associated with damage to plants during feeding and subsequent virus transmission. Yet, global phylogenetic relationships, population structure, and estimation of the rates of gene flow within this whitefly species remain largely unexplored. In this study, we obtained and filtered 227 GenBank records of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase I (mtCOI) sequences of T. vaporariorum, across various global locations to obtain a final set of 217 GenBank records. We further amplified and sequenced a ~750 bp fragment of mtCOI from an additional 31 samples collected from Kenya in 2014. Based on a total of 248 mtCOI sequences, we identified 16 haplotypes, with extensive overlap across all countries. Population structure analysis did not suggest population differentiation. Phylogenetic analysis indicated the 2014 Kenyan collection of samples clustered with a single sequence from the Netherlands to form a well-supported clade (denoted clade 1a) nested within the total set of sequences (denoted clade 1). Pairwise distances between sequences show greater sequence divergence between clades than within clades. In addition, analysis using migrate-n gave evidence for recent gene flow between the two groups. Overall, we find that T. vaporariorum forms a single large group, with evidence of further diversification consisting primarily of Kenyan sequences and one sequence from the Netherlands forming a well-supported clade.

Laboratory-based experiments are presented involving two aphid sepcies (Myzus persicae Sulzer, a generalist and Brevicoryne brassicae Linnaeus, a crucifer specialist), and the predatory gall midge, Aphidoletes aphidimyza Rondani, on three cultivars of common cabbage Brassica oleracea var. capitata cv. Derby Day (green-leaved), Minicole (green-leaved) and Ruby Ball (red-leaved). In a laboratory-based tritrophic system including both species of aphid, the three cabbage cultivars and A. aphidimyza, predator both species of aphid, the three feeding on M. persicae or B. brassicae on cv. Derby Day, while growth was slowest separate experiment, A. asphidimyza larva feeding on B. brassicae on each of the three cultivars were significantly smaller and consumed less aphid fresh weight when maintained outdoors (mean temperature = 13.5°C) compared with a constant environment room (20°C). However, in this latter experiment under neither regime were differeneces in predator growth or consumption significant between cultivars. Effects of selective insecticides (pirimicarb and a neem seed kernel extract, NeemAzal-T/SR) on bitrophic (aphid-host plant) interactions were also investigated in the laboratory. A pirimicarb dose equating to c. 15% of the recommended field concentration caused equivalent toxicity of M. persicae on cv. Minicole compared with aphids treated with a three-fold greater dose and reared on cv. Derby Day. Cultivar-mediated differences in aphid mortality caused by the neem extract when tested for systemic and translaminar activity were not apparent. The results are discussed in relation to ways in which host plant selection, selective insecticides and biological control could potentially be manipulated and optimized in aphid management system on brassica crops.

The generally accepted assumption on the low mortality pressure for inside-tree habitat was challenged in this study. To achieve this objective, the number of larval instars of xylem-feeding Aredolpona rubra (L.) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) was determined using multidimensional statistics, and the life table was constructed based on the head-width distribution of larvae taken from the field. The mean value of natural mortality of an average larva was then compared with data available for other wood-feeding species and contrasted with insects from other feeding guilds. The results show that larvae living in wood experience lower mortality rates than those from other habitats and that, among the wood-feeders, the mortality rate of larvae decreases while development time increases further inside the tree.

The work described in the following paper was undertaken subsequent to Mr. F. D. Golding's investigations (2), which established the significance of Helopeltis spp. (Capsidae) to the Nigerian cotton crop, and which showed that some study of the life-history of this recent addition to the list of Nigerian insect pests was desirable.

Observations are recorded on the habits and behaviour of wild adult A. amictus hilli and A. punctulatus farauti at Cairns, North Queensland, and of the two subspecies and intermediate forms of A. punctulatus in New Guinea.

The most important points determined, which bear on the control of adults of A. punctulatus, are:—

(1) Females disperse from the breeding area shortly after emergence. During the day, they are rarely found indoors in any numbers, but hide away in moist, sheltered places in the bush in the vicinity of the source of the blood-meal. Fertilisation of the female takes place here, and these diurnal resting places are vacated only for the purposes of feeding and oviposition.

(2) Both before and after feeding, females rest on the walls, etc., of huts and houses, which they readily enter. There is some evidence that the normal flight is dose to the ground, and only comparatively small numbers enter houses built several feet off the ground.

(3) Activity does not usually commence until just after dark, and the peak of abundance occurs in the early hours of the morning.

(4) Females may disperse at least one mile from their breeding grounds in search of a blood-meal.

(5) In New Guinea there is a distinct preference for the native.

(6) Whilst A. pundulatus farauti does not show any marked preference for man, animal or bird, A. pundulatus pundulatus has very definite androphilous tendencies.

The habits of A. amictus hilli are broadly similar to those of A. pundulatus farauti, but differ in important details. It does not rest indoors during the day, but its favoured outdoor habitat awaits determination. Only a few females were found at Cairns in the bush diurnal resting places used by A. pundulatus farauti, whilst the large numbers observed on the breeding area were there for the purposes of oviposition. Fertilisation takes place in the breeding area, where the males remain. There also appears to be a different nocturnal periodicity from that observed for A. pundulatus farauti.

An attempt was made to determine the ages of the females captured at night and during the day by means of the criteria of ovary development, wing condition, presence of blood and of spermatozoa. The interpretation of these criteria was assisted by observations on bred A. pundulatus pundulatus.

Examples of the persistence of adult infestations of Chortoicetes terminifera (Wlk.) in Australia were contrasted with ones where mass displacement took place. Migration occurred if sufficient rain had fallen at the nymphal stage to produce green pasture; persistence was associated with drought.

This short paper summarises and discusses the entomological results obtained from marking experiments done with Glossina morsitans at Kakoma, Tabora, Tanganyika Territory, from July 1938 to May 1940. The first eighteen months' data and results have been given in full elsewhere (Jackson, 1941) and the mathematical treatment explained. The marking experiments occupied three days weekly, and covered an area of 16 square miles of annually fired woodland and seasonal swamp; a similar area was observed in the same way for a year in country protected against fire, and in addition a number of special experiments to check results were carried out. The climate and situation of Kakoma have already been described (Jackson, 1937) for the year 1935; from that year until April 1938, smaller scale routine marking experiments were carried on with few interruptions, so that there is available a fairly complete body of data collected over nearly five and a half years.

The effects of intraplant variation of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and wafer content within maize plants on fitness of the African armyworm, Spodoptera exempta (Walker), were studied in three experiments by using an excised leaf system. Maize plants were phosphorus deficient in one of the experiments. Various leaf categories were distinguished differing in age and position on the plants. Leaf sections on which caterpillars fed were daily refreshed. Changes in the four plant variables measured, due to the excision and subsequent placement of the leaf sections in the excised leaf system for one day, were small and mostly insignificant. Highly significant differences were found between the composition of the various leaf categories in all three experiments. In all experiments, the nitrogen concentrations ranged from 2.4 to 4.5%, phosphorus from 0.1 to 1.3%, and potassium from 1.4 to 4.8% dry weight, while water content varied from 83 to 90% fresh weight. Of all insect fitness parameters observed, only larval growth rate was consistently and significantly affected by leaf category. Fecundity was strongly correlated with pharate adult weight. Only phosphorus was significantly and positively correlated with larval fresh weight, especially in the experiment with phosphorus deficient plants. Multiple regression models revealed that in all experiments a significant proportion of variation in larval fresh weight between leaf categories could be explained by the four plant variables. However, only phosphorus was included in all models. When all leaf categories used in the three experiments were considered simultaneously, the importance of phosphorus for larval growth rate in these experiments was again evident. The variation in nitrogen, potassium and water appeared to be of little or no significance. The consequences of these findings for outbreak development of S. exempta are discussed.

The effectiveness of varying weekly release rates of the parasitoid Eretmocerus eremicus Rose & Zolnerowich for control of Bemisia argentifolii Bellows & Perring on poinsettias was determined. Two variable release rate strategies for E. eremicus were evaluated: a low–high and a high–low release regimen. In the low–high treatment, one female parasitoid was released per plant per week for seven weeks, then the release rate was increased to five female parasitoids per plant per week for the remaining seven weeks of the trial. In the high–low treatment, five female parasitoids per plant per week were released for the first seven weeks, then the release rate was reduced to one female parasitoid per plant per week for the final seven weeks of the trial. Both release rates averaged three female parasitoids per plant per week. Life-tables were made for B. argentifoliiin the presence and absence of parasitoids. In the absence of E. eremicus, egg to adult survivorship for B. argentifolii was 65%. In low–high release greenhouses, average egg to adult survivorship for B. argentifoliiwas 6% and parasitism was 28%. In high–low greenhouses, average egg to adult survivorship for B. argentifolii was 5% and parasitism was 16%. Average net reproductive rates for B. argentifolii in the absence of parasitoids was 17 indicating a rapidly increasing population. Net reproductive rates were 1.46 and 1.24 for low–high and high–low release greenhouses, respectively, indicating substantially reduced B. argentifolii population growth. At week 14 of the trial, densities of live nymphs and pupae were lower in high–low greenhouses when compared to low–high greenhouses. Better whitefly control is achieved with inundative releases of E. eremicus when this natural enemy acts as a predator as opposed to a parasitoid.

Gas liquid chromatography (GC) was used to analyse the cuticular alkanes of 26 species and subspecies of tsetse flies (Glossina spp.). Unique interspecific and intraspecific (males vs. females) chromatographic patterns were observed. Solvent extraction of dried museum specimens and fresh specimens were equally successful, and left specimens undamaged. GC peaks were used as characters with one of five character states per peak, to show phenetic relationships among species by sex using a UPGMA algorithm, using 23 peaks for males and 40 peaks for females. Comparisons among species of the morsitans group often agreed with recognized morsitans group classification using morphological techniques, with G. austeni Newstead being somewhat aberrant. Glossina tachinoides Westwood was less closely related to others in the palpalis group than previously described using morphology. Eleven members of the rarely studied fusca group were also classified by this methodology.