Australasian teal consist of five taxa (Anas gracilis, A. castanea, A. chlorotis, A. aucklandica and A. nesiotis) whose taxonomic identities and relationships have been uncertain. Analysis of variation at 14 allozyme loci indicates limited but clear divergence of New Zealand taxa (A. chlorotis, A. aucklandica, A. nesiotis), in agreement with previous studies of morphological variation. The New Zealand taxa are “terminal and evolutionarily independent units” that clearly meet the criteria for specific recognition in line with the phylogenetic species concept (PSC). Because each is also geographically restricted and has small world population size, specific recognition supports increased conservation status for each. The three New Zealand species do not form a sister group with A. castanea, as previously hypothesized; instead, A. castanea and A. gracilis are sister taxa.

The Corncrake Crex crex breeds in the Palearctic but overwinters in central and southern Africa. While some information had previously been gathered about the Corncrake’s African wintering distribution, we here analyse a much more comprehensive database of 1,284 records based on a five-year desk study completed in January 2011 and use those records selected for spatio-temporal accuracy to build a continental distribution model. Our model was based mostly on climatic variables and predicts a high suitability for most eastern Africa countries south of the equator, but none of the western African countries with the exception of Angola and Namibia. Both the actual number of records as well as the distribution model thus indicates that the vast majority of Corncrakes migrate through and overwinter in the eastern parts of Africa. Because large parts of Angola, Mozambique, north-eastern Namibia, and Tanzania are predicted as suitable but have yielded very few actual records so far, they should be targeted for future field work. A very small number of Corncrakes may oversummer in Africa but such individuals are possibly unable to migrate due to sickness or injury, or may be first-year birds that are not ready to breed. An analysis of habitat and population density data indicates that, within the continental distribution, Corncrakes are mostly concentrated within grass-dominated habitats, mirroring their habitat preferences in the breeding areas. Corncrakes reach their wintering distribution mostly through an eastern migration route, but some individuals or subpopulations from the Western breeding population also use a western migration route. We also document the food choices, weights, and causes of injury and death within Africa. Because habitat conversion is accelerating all across Africa, we recommend constant monitoring of habitat availability and population densities within the Corncrake’s wintering distribution.

Because migrant birds occur in different parts of the world in different seasons, their numbers may be limited by the size of the smallest area they inhabit during the year. In addition, restricted ranges make populations more susceptible to local perturbations such that range size is frequently considered a correlate of species vulnerability. Despite this, little is known about the balance between seasonal ranges in the migrant populations of partially migratory species. These migrants are difficult to segregate from sedentary conspecifics in winter grounds and thus the extent of their ranges is difficult to assess. Here, we studied the extent of potential breeding and wintering ranges of 10 partial migratory passerines moving to winter in the Iberian Peninsula and the Maghreb. After testing migratory connectivity of the individual species, we used niche modelling to calculate the extent of potential breeding and wintering ranges in 1,113 pairs of ring recoveries linking individuals between breeding and wintering localities. The results indicate that most species show migratory connectivity and that all of them show range compression in winter relative to the breeding range, with scores ranging between 19% and 58% (mean 37%) of breeding ranges. We discuss the importance of non-breeding grounds for conserving migratory passerines in the Western Mediterranean Basin, an area under pressure from climate change and agricultural intensification.

Early work on the Dark-rumped Petrel Pterodroma phaeopygia of the Galápagos Islands, Ecuador, identified colony sites and population status and alerted wildlife managers to an alarming decline in nesting numbers. Predation by introduced mammals, such as rats, cats, pigs and dogs, is the chief concern, followed by loss of nesting habitat to agricultural development. Programmes to reduce predation through poisoning and hunting, begun in 1983, increased the number of chicks fledged from the main breeding colony in eight out of nine years. Pre-breeding adults were lured by tape-recordings to ‘safe’ sites where they successfully raised chicks in artificial nests. Tape-luring offers hope for establishing new colonies on predator-free islands.

For Greater Scaup Aythya marila, classified as ‘Vulnerable’ on the European Red List of Birds, the south-western Baltic Sea is one of the most important wintering sites in Europe. In this area, a large concentration of gillnet fishery temporally overlaps periods of the most abundant occurrence of foraging diving birds. The aim of the article is to show how bycatch can impact the population of a diving duck. To assess this, we calculate the Potential Biological Removal (PBR) for the studied Greater Scaup population and we model the population change according to age-structured matrix models. Summing all the available recent figures on Greater Scaup bycatch in north-west Europe yields an estimated mean annual total of 3,991 individuals (2% of the flyway population). For a baseline stable population, an age-structured matrix model indicates that at this bycatch level the Greater Scaup population that winters in north-west Europe will decrease by 36% over the next 30 years, qualifying the status of the population as ‘Vulnerable’ according to IUCN criteria. As this population also experiences decline prior to bycatch, this decrease will be 57%, which qualifies the status as ‘Endangered’. PBR as an indicator of population vitality does not work in our case because the PBR-informed allowable bycatch values have a significantly negative impact on the population. Our results indicate unambiguously that fishery bycatch is among the most important threats responsible for the Greater Scaup’s decline. While recent data suggest that some improvement has taken place in the species’ status over the last 10 years, measures to protect Greater Scaup from bycatch are required. The solution should involve the prohibition of gillnet fishing in selected key sites and the use of mitigation techniques in other areas.

The Galapagos Petrel Pterodroma phaeopygia is endemic to the Galapagos Archipelago, where it nests on only five islands. The species is considered ‘Critically Endangered’, mostly due to the effects of alien invasive species, which impair its reproductive success. During 2002–2003 we studied the breeding biology of the petrels nesting on San Cristóbal island. The study revealed particular characteristics of the San Cristóbal petrel population and differences compared to those of other islands, mostly related to nesting habitat, phenology, reproductive success and causes of mortality. On San Cristóbal, petrel nests were primarily located along ravines, in areas of dense vegetation cover formed by the endemic shrub Miconia robinsoniana and a wide variety of native ferns. Over 90% of the nests on the island were located on private agricultural land. The petrel population has a prolonged reproductive period covering 10 months. Laying dates occurred mostly from May to October, with a peak during August, although eggs may be occasionally laid between November and March. The incubation period averaged 50.8 days (range: 46–53), and parental care 103.7 days (range: 98–108). Overall reproductive success was 23.6%; 63.8% for eggs and 37.1% for chicks. Predation by rats was the primary cause (72.2%) of nest failure. Rat control campaigns and clearing of exotic plant species in areas of high density of petrel nests, as well as promoting cooperation agreements between conservation authorities and landowners of the properties where nests are located, are suggested among other critical management measures intended to reduce nest mortality and ensure the survival of the San Cristóbal petrel population.

We applied the ecological niche/habitat modelling approach to predict the potential winter distribution of the endangered Black-capped Vireo Vireo atricapilla. We used historical and current field records along with climatic and topographic variables to generate three different models (Biomapper, Maxent, and GARP). Using field data on species occurrence, a model was selected based on the accuracy of assessment results. A final model was obtained by eliminating those areas mapped as known unsuitable habitat, using high resolution land use/land cover data. The GARP model obtained the best accuracy values. It showed the winter distribution of the Black-capped Vireo to cover an area in western Mexico of about 141,000 km2 that runs along the Pacific coast from southern Sonora (Río Yaqui, Alvaro Obregón Dam) to the southern state of Oaxaca (Salina Cruz on the Pacific coast and Matias Romero, and inland). One third of the proposed model’s area was located at elevations of 0–500 m, while 83% occurred at elevations < 1,250 m; however, a significant area (17%) consists of sites > 1,250 m in elevation. For the most part, the distribution model proposed closely followed the tropical dry forest boundaries and clearly avoided temperate areas at higher elevations. This situation seems to be critical for the species, since the dry forest is one of most endangered Neotropical ecosystems, both nationally and internationally. Furthermore, the array of areas under protection regimes included only about 7.1% of the predicted wintering area. However, this figure could be misleading when it is considered that some protected areas are just “paper reserves” without significant conservation programmes developed in situ.

Invasive predators have decimated island biodiversity worldwide. Rats (Rattus spp.) are perhaps the greatest conservation threat to island fauna. The ground nesting Palau Micronesian Scrubfowl Megapodius laperouse senex (Megapodiidae) inhabits many of the islands of Palau’s Rock Island Southern Lagoon Conservation Area (RISL) in the western Pacific. These islands are also heavily visited by tourists and support populations of introduced rats, both of which may act as added stressors for the scrubfowl. Using passive chew-tag and call playback surveys on five tourist-visited and five tourist-free islands, we investigated if rats and tourists negatively affect scrubfowl, and if higher rat activity is associated with tourist presence. Rat detection probability and site occupancy were significantly higher on tourist visited (89% and 99%, respectively) compared to tourist-free islands (52% and 73%). Scrubfowl were detected at significantly more stations on tourist-free (93%) than tourist visited (47%) islands and their relative abundance was higher (2.66 and 1.58 birds per station, respectively), although not statistically significantly. While rat occupancy probability likewise had a non-significant negative effect on scrubfowl numbers across islands, our results show a negative relationship between tourist presence and scrubfowl in the RISL. Our findings also suggest that rat populations may be augmented by tourist visitation in the RISL. Although this situation may not seriously affect the scrubfowl, it may be highly detrimental to populations of other threatened island landbirds.

In Thailand, as for most of South-East Asia, large vertebrates are declining rapidly due to habitat degradation and increasing hunting pressure. Once relatively common in the evergreen forest of Southern Thailand, the Great Argus Argusianus argus is currently limited to a few populations, whose status is currently unknown. In this study we investigated changes in Great Argus abundance over the past 13 years in Hala-Bala Wildlife Sanctuary. Our aim was to estimate and compare the abundance and density of this species from an earlier two-year survey in 2001–2002 and ours in 2014, and to assess the effect of landscape change on its status of the species. We conducted surveys from March to August 2014 during the breeding season. We placed point counts that overlapped the line transects from the 2001–2002 survey. The results indicated a decline of > 35% in mean abundance from 2001 to 2014. In addition, male abundance has shifted and is now positively related to distance from the forest edge. High levels of human disturbance close to the forest edge may have resulted in the birds moving to the core of the forest, suggesting a need to increase protection and management of forest edge areas. In common with other studies of large vertebrates, our results confirm the importance of long-term studies to highlight the negative effects of human disturbance.

The Corncrake Crex crex is a rail which inhabits tall grass and herbage and migrates between breeding grounds in northern Eurasia and wintering areas in south-east Africa. Corncrake populations are known to have been declining for more than 100 years in some countries and declines have now been reported for almost all of the European part of the species's world range. It appears that mechanized mowing early in the breeding season reduces the production of young to a point below that needed to maintain the population. It might therefore be expected that Corncrakes would be least abundant in countries where the management of agricultural grassland is most mechanized and intensive. To test this hypothesis, an analysis of available statistics for agricultural intensity and Corncrake population density in different European countries was undertaken. Milk yield per dairy cow and measures of the use of fertilizers and tractors were used as indices of the intensity of management of agricultural grassland. Corncrakes were least abundant in European countries with high levels of milk yield, fertilizer and tractor use. Countries with low indices of agricultural intensity and high Corncrake abundance are in eastern Europe where continuing political change makes the future course of agricultural development difficult to foresee. The persistence of the Corncrake in this region depends on the adoption of agricultural policies which do not encourage further intensification of grassland management in those areas which support important populations.

Understanding the particular nesting ecology of island endemic species represents the first step in identifying suitable micro-habitats and establishing efficient management programmes. This could become even more important when island bird assemblages are prone to invasion by ecologically similar species that may eventually cause niche compression or the extirpation of species already present on the island. In this study we describe the nesting ecology of both native and introduced landbird species of the Juan Fernández Islands and determine the extent to which native species could be negatively affected by alien competitors. A total of 119 nests belonging to the 11 resident landbird species were analysed. Landbirds exhibited a wide range of nesting habitat preferences on the different islands, covering different vegetation types, altitudes and ecosystems. By means of a cluster analysis we determined that competition between alien and endemic species apparently does not represent an important factor affecting resource use by endemic birds. Endemic landbirds preferred sites comparatively higher above the ground, with a greater slope and a larger level of shelter, than alien species. The introduced hummingbird, the Green-backed Firecrown Sephanoides sephaniodes, had different nesting preferences to the endemic Juan Fernandez Firecrown S. fernandensis, whereas the House Sparrow Passer domesticus selected nest sites located in populated areas, suggesting that both alien species may not be competing with endemic passerines for nest sites. However, urgent measures are necessary to reduce the potential predation risk on Juan Fernandez Firecrown nests by the alien Austral Thrush Turdus falcklandii.

The Red River Delta in northern Vietnam is an important stopover and wintering site for migratory waterbirds. During the spring of 1994, six globally threatened and five near-threatened species were observed in the coastal areas of the Delta. According to current applications of threat categories, one of the species has Critical status (Black-faced Spoonbill Platalea minor), three are Endangered (Nordmann's Greenshank Tringa guttifer, Saunders's Gull Larus saundersi and Chinese Egret Egretta eulophotes), two are Vulnerable (Spoonbill Sandpiper Eurynorhynchus pygmaeus and Spot-billed Pelican Pelecanus philippensis) and five are Near-threatened (Asian Dowitcher Limnodromus semipalmatus, Grey-headed Lapwing Vanellus cinereus, Black-headed Ibis Threskiornis melanocephalus, Painted Stork Mycteria leucocephala and Japanese Paradise-Flycatcher Terpsiphone atrocaudata). A nature reserve, also listed as a Ramsar area, already exists in the middle of the Delta. The Cua Day Estuary in the southern part of the delta is not included in either the nature reserve or Ramsar area. However, observations of 260 Saunders's Gulls and 41 Black-faced Spoonbills, which represent 9% and 12% of the estimated respective world populations, indicates the international importance of this area. The major threats to the waterbirds using the delta are reclamation of intertidal sand- and mudflats for aquaculture, increased disturbance associated with collection of sea products and hunting. Recommendations are made for future conservation actions.

Pale-headed Brush-finch Atlapetes pallidiceps is on the verge of extinction, with fewer than 100 individuals surviving in an area of less than 4 km2 in the Yunguilla valley in the province of Azuay, southern Ecuador. A reserve created for the protection of the species held 10 or 12 pairs in 1999, 14 in 2000, 16 in 2001 and 17 in 2002. Nearly all males had distinctive songs, showing little or no change from one year to the next. The yearly turnover of singing males was 40% in both 2000 and 2001 (4/10), and 29% in 2002 (4/14). Altitudinal range of A. pallidiceps was 1,650–1,950 m. Habitat was typical of regenerating landslides and fallow fields, composed of early succession growth in the ecotone between dry, thorny valley-bottom and humid forest remnants on the upper slopes. Territory size averaged 1.0 ha (range 0.7–1.4 ha, n = 37), and nearly all territories were within 100 m of a stream or an irrigation channel. Most were on steep slopes with Chusquea bamboo, and deciduous bushy cover with few or no spines, typically including the composite Steiractinia sodiroi, and with some open areas. Although habitat improved considerably between 1999 and 2002, some territories were vacant some years. Shiny Cowbird Molothrus bonariensis parasitism was noted, and could be even more important than habitat as a limiting factor of the population size. The song of A. pallidiceps was found to be similar to songs of several other Atlapetes spp. in general pattern. Diet was composed of arthropods, fruit and a few seeds. Arthropods were almost invariably picked from the bark on upper- and under-surfaces of twigs and small branches. Seeds were taken from the ground. Young (cowbirds) were apparently only fed insects. Between 1,800 and 1,950 m A. pallidiceps occurred with Rufous-naped Brush-finch A. latinuchus, which replaces it at higher elevations. Territories did not overlap, and where they met, A. latinuchus was confined to slightly taller and more humid vegetation, or to forest. In interspecific encounters A. pallidiceps was subordinate to Stripe-headed Brush-finch Buarremon torquatus, with which it coexisted in all its territories. Habitat management began in 2002, and limited cowbird control is planned to begin in 2003.

The historical distribution of the Red-crowned Crane Grus japonensis together changes in its breeding and wintering grounds in China are reviewed. According to historical information the bird mainly bred in Heilongjiang and Jilin Provinces and wintered at coastal regions near the Yangtze estuary. Due to geographical and anthropological changes, the breeding grounds gradually moved to the west and south while the wintering grounds moved northward. Efforts have been made to protect this endangered species but factors still exist which restrict further development of the population.

From 1950 to 1999 there was a substantial decrease in the number of Imperial Eagles Aquila heliaca breeding in the Baikal region of eastern Russia, but there have been no apparent changes in habitat or breeding success within this region. Identification of wintering and stopover sites is therefore necessary to discover whether negative impacts at these sites could be causing the observed population decline. To this end, we satellite-tracked four juvenile Imperial Eagles from Lake Baikal to their wintering grounds. Two sibling eagles were tracked in 1998 and two siblings from a different brood in 1999. The eagles migrated through eastern Mongolia and central Inner Mongolia (China), and wintered from south China to Thailand. Siblings independently used the same migration flyway, and the flyway was different between families. These results provide useful information for determining the causes of the decline in the population of Imperial Eagles in the Baikal region.

The Black Woodpecker Dryocopus martius is the largest woodpecker of the Palearctic Region and it has been recognised as a keystone species whose presence provides critical resources to secondary cavity-users in European forest ecosystems. Here we investigate cavity tree and foraging-habitat selection of Black Woodpecker in three natural parks located in the central and eastern Italian Alps and included in the Natura 2000 network. A total of 94 cavity trees were identified, showing a minimum diameter of 35 cm and a mean diameter of 51 cm. We counted 30 active nests, but only 40% were newly excavated. Silver fir Abies alba and larch Larix decidua were preferred as cavity trees, with silver fir also associated with habitat surrounding the cavity trees. Norway spruce Picea abies and Silver fir were found to be positively associated with the surroundings of feeding sites. Logistic regression models identified the average diameter at breast height and the average tree crown height as significant predictors, positively associated with both cavity trees (AUC: 0.988) and cavity tree plots (AUC: 0.866). Also, the total volume of dead logs and the percentage of understorey cover turned out to be significant predictors of feeding sites, showing a positive and a negative association, respectively (AUC: 0.708). Cross validation of logistic regression models indicated that only cavity tree models can be considered useful tools in conservation practice. Overall, our results indicated that the Black Woodpecker behaves like an opportunist when choosing feeding sites. On the other hand, our results also indicate that the Black Woodpecker clearly behaves as a demanding species when it selects cavity trees, showing a hierarchical pattern in habitat selection and a marked preference for large trees with high crown height. We discuss the implications of our results for the conservation of the Black Woodpecker in Natura 2000 alpine sites.

A rapidly developing tourism industry, concentrated in coastal regions, is suspected to seriously impact upon biodiversity in the global conservation priority of the insular Caribbean. In St Lucia, construction of tourism infrastructure in the coastal dry forest threatens the Endangered White-breasted Thrasher Ramphocinclus brachyurus. Long-term protection of habitat is vital, but design of such conservation action is constrained by lack of data on the species' distribution and population responses to habitat change and fragmentation. Distance sampling surveys were conducted in 2006 and 2007 to estimate numbers and map the distribution of the two remaining sub-populations. White-breasted Thrashers in St Lucia were estimated to number around 1,200 individuals, with roughly 1,050 birds occupying just over 600 ha of dry forest in the Mandelé area. We demonstrate that tourist development companies will likely soon own land constituting around 40% of the species' extent of occurrence on St Lucia, and nearly 35% globally, and that ongoing and planned tourist developments threaten around one third of the St Lucian White-breasted Thrasher population. Given the size of these potential impacts, it is vital that patches of dry forest to the west and north of a development site in the Mandelé area are safeguarded. These sites support White-breasted Thrashers at high density and are contiguous with an existing forest reserve. Other important conservation measures include preserving stands of connected mature dry and riparian forest inside the tourist development sites, alongside invasive predator control.

West African flood-plains have undergone major land-use transformations in the second half of the 20th century. To obtain insight in the effect of flood-plain development for irrigated rice cultivation on the abundance, richness, and diversity of Palearctic and Afrotropical raptors, we conducted monthly transect surveys covering dry and wet seasons in four major habitats on the Waza-Logone flood-plain of Cameroon: dry grasslands, cultivated grasslands, rice fields, and seasonally flooded grasslands resembling natural flood-plain vegetation. We recorded 36 raptor species among 2,533 individuals, dominated by Black Kite Milvus migrans, which comprised 42% of counts. Although richness and diversity were not related to land-use for Palearctic raptors, Afrotropical raptor diversity was higher on the flooded grasslands compared to the newly created cultivated habitats and dry grasslands. The abundance of Afrotropical raptors did not significantly differ across habitats but was lower in rice-fields when Black Kite and Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus were excluded. Conversely, Palearctic raptor abundance was highest in post-harvest rice fields, demonstrating the importance of the rice fields as foraging habitat for Palearctic raptors. Further transformation of West Africa’s flood-plains is expected, reducing their capacity for Afrotropical raptors, while Palearctic raptors may benefit from expansion of rice-fields, but more research is needed on their vulnerability to pesticide use.

Characterising the habitat use of released captive-bred birds is required to help optimise future avian reintroduction programmes. The critically endangered Double-spurred Francolin Francolinus bicalcaratus ayesha is endemic to north-west Morocco, where it inhabits forests of cork oak Quercus suber. To improve the viability of this threatened population, 300 captive-bred francolins were released into a game reserve, and post-release monitoring was conducted. This study aimed to identify habitat variables determining the habitat selection of the Double-spurred Francolin. Auditory detection was used during transect surveys of calling males to locate birds and their habitat occupation. Comparison of occupied and random plots showed that this bird is found mostly in flat topography with high cover of shrubs and dense cork oak trees, and close to the release site and water points. Conservation of Double-spurred Francolin depends on the choice of the release point within the cork oak forest, which should be in proximity to suitable cover of cork oak trees, shrubs and water points. Such choices would allow a rapid adaptation to prevailing conditions within release sites. Further multi-scale studies are needed to improve our understanding of the effects of ecological factors on the processes of habitat selection by this endemic subspecies.

The Bawean Serpent-eagle Spilornis baweanus is endemic to the 190 km2 island of Bawean in the Java Sea (Indonesia) where it is the only resident diurnal raptor. A 15 day study in 2002 revealed that the species is present in small numbers throughout the island. The eagle's abundance was assessed by an island-wide survey and by sampling 28 1 km2 plots covering five habitat types. There was a strong positive correlation between abundance and contact time in plots. Compared with other habitat types, the number of, and contact time with, serpent-eagles was higher in tall forest. The species was not recorded in mangrove and coastal forest. There was no correlation between the eagle's abundance and the nearest distance to villages. Based on the distribution of forest and the abundance of adult pairs within these forests, the available habitat totals 92 km2, in which some 60–75 adult serpent-eagles remain. Semi-structured interviews with the islanders revealed that recreational hunting poses the largest threat to the survival of the Bawean Serpent-eagle, and that the increase in recreational hunting was a relatively recent phenomenon. The forest on Bawean, including that in two reserves, is poorly protected and illegal logging and burning are widespread. The low degree of habitat protection, the severe threat posed by hunting and the very small population size of the eagle qualify the species to be included in the IUCN Red List as Critically Endangered. In order to safeguard the Bawean Serpent-eagle hunting must be stopped immediately and the remaining habitat needs to be better protected. This is probably best achieved by a conservation body in which local and regional authorities and NGOs cooperate.